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This study investigated the reasons that leaders have given for their leader role occupancy. By using a mixed-method approach and large leader data, we aimed to provide a more nuanced picture of how leader positions are occupied in real life. We examined how individual leadership motivation may associate with other reasons for leader role occupancy. In addition, we aimed to integrate the different reasons behind leader role occupancy into the framework of sustainable leader careers and its two indicators: leader’s health (occupational well-being) and performance (measured indirectly as followers’ occupational well-being). The survey data consisted of 1,031 leaders from various sectors of working life. Qualitative analysis revealed that leaders mention various factors behind their leader role occupancy, resulting 26 themes. After inductive investigation of the data, theory-driven analysis focused on the sustainable career components (person, context, time) and agency vs. non-agency. Qualitative data was quantitized based on the theory-driven categories for statistical analysis. Based on the these analysis, we found out that only Affective-Identity MTL predicted all of the studied reasons behind leader role occupancy, whereas the other motivation types (Non-calculative MTL and Social-Normative MTL) did not. All of the reasons for leader role occupancy except non-agentic ones were related to both leaders’ own and their followers’ occupational well-being. Leaders with more person-related and agentic reasons for leader role occupancy experienced better occupational well-being. Person- and context-related and agentic reasons behind leader role occupancy associated also with followers’ occupational well-being, but the associations differed from those of leaders’ well-being: person-related and agentic reasons associated with followers’ exhaustion, but this association was not found among leaders. Our study provided important information for practitioners in the field of human resources and development, as it has shown that if the reasons for leader role occupancy mainly reflect circumstances or other non-person-related reasons, the experienced occupational well-being and person-career fit may remain weak. It is necessary to try to support the leadership motivation for those leaders, or to shape the job description in such a way that it can also offer the experiences of meaningfulness from aspects other than self-realization through a managerial role. peerReviewed

This study investigated the reasons that leaders have given for their leader role occupancy. By using a mixed-method approach and large leader data, we aimed to provide a more nuanced picture of how leader positions are occupied in real life. We examined how individual leadership motivation may associate with other reasons for leader role occupancy. In addition, we aimed to integrate the different reasons behind leader role occupancy into the framework of sustainable leader careers and its two indicators: leader’s health (occupational well-being) and performance (measured indirectly as followers’ occupational well-being). The survey data consisted of 1,031 leaders from various sectors of working life. Qualitative analysis revealed that leaders mention various factors behind their leader role occupancy, resulting 26 themes. After inductive investigation of the data, theory-driven analysis focused on the sustainable career components (person, context, time) and agency vs. non-agency. Qualitative data was quantitized based on the theory-driven categories for statistical analysis. Based on the these analysis, we found out that only Affective-Identity MTL predicted all of the studied reasons behind leader role occupancy, whereas the other motivation types (Non-calculative MTL and Social-Normative MTL) did not. All of the reasons for leader role occupancy except non-agentic ones were related to both leaders’ own and their followers’ occupational well-being. Leaders with more person-related and agentic reasons for leader role occupancy experienced better occupational well-being. Person- and context-related and agentic reasons behind leader role occupancy associated also with followers’ occupational well-being, but the associations differed from those of leaders’ well-being: person-related and agentic reasons associated with followers’ exhaustion, but this association was not found among leaders. Our study provided important information for practitioners in the field of human resources and development, as it has shown that if the reasons for leader role occupancy mainly reflect circumstances or other non-person-related reasons, the experienced occupational well-being and person-career fit may remain weak. It is necessary to try to support the leadership motivation for those leaders, or to shape the job description in such a way that it can also offer the experiences of meaningfulness from aspects other than self-realization through a managerial role.

Tässä artikkelissa kuvaamme, miten johtajien moraalinen identiteetti näyttäytyy organisaatioissa ilmenevissä moraalisissa haasteissa ja millaisia kehityskulkuja identiteeteissä on havaittavissa. Esitämme, että Marcian identiteettistatusparadigmaa voidaan soveltaa myös moraaliseen kehitykseen. Näin ollen myös moraalisen identiteetin kypsyys voidaan määritellä kahden, identiteetin rakentamiseen liittyvän keskeisen prosessin avulla, joita ovat henkilökohtaisten arvojen aktiivinen etsiminen sekä arvoihin sitoutuminen. Lisäksi sovellamme Marcian identiteettitasapainoa horjuttavan tapahtuman käsitettä moraalisiin ongelmatilanteisiin. Empiirisessä osuudessa kuvaamme tunnistettavissa olevia kontekstiin ja/tai yksilöön liittyviä tekijöitä, jotka voivat joko tukea tai haastaa johtajien moraalisen identiteetin ilmenemistä ja kehittymistä organisaatioissa. Kokoamme esittämämme teoreettiset näkökulmat ja niihin liittyvät tutkimushavainnot tiivistetyksi malliksi, jonka pohjalta voimme yksityiskohtaisemmin ymmärtää yksilöllisiä eroja moraalisessa identiteetissä sekä sitä, miten nämä erot voivat vaikuttaa moraalisten ongelmatilanteiden kohtaamiseen ja ratkaisemiseen organisaatioissa. We explore the formation of identity in adulthood in the domains of work, intimate relationships, and parenting. As part of the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development, a semi-structured identity interview was conducted at the ages of 27, 36, 42 and 50 (N = 221–291). We determined the identity status of the subjects (diffuse, moratorium, foreclosure or achieved) for each of the three domains, and examined whether the identity status was related to the concurrent life situation. In young men at age 27, occupational identity moratorium was more typical for those without full-time employment. In women of the same age, intimate relationship identity moratorium was associated with a lack of a stable relationship. In 36-year-old men, childlessness was associated with a parental identity diffusion or moratorium. Later, the links emerged between life situation and identity diffusion: men without full-time work at 42 and women at 50 were more often diffuse in occupational identity; men and women without a stable relationship at age 50 were more often diffuse in intimate relationship identity; and childless women at age 42 were more often diffuse in parental identity. peerReviewed

Tässä tutkimuksessa selvitettiin suomalaisten johtajien kokemuksia johtamiseen liittyvistä huolista. Lisäksi näitä kokemuksia verrattiin aiemmassa tutkimuksessa kehitettyyn johtamisen huolenaiheiden malliin ja sen kolmeen ulottuvuuteen: huoli epäonnistumisesta, huoli itsen tai muiden vahingoittamisesta sekä huoli työn ja muun elämän epätasapainosta. Tutkimuksen laadullinen aineisto koostui johtajien välisistä fokusryhmäkeskusteluista, joihin osallistui yhteensä 17 johtajaa. Aineistolähtöisen luokittelun tuloksena havaittiin yhteensä 12 erilaista huoliteemaa, joista enemmistö luokiteltiin johtamisen huolenaiheiden mallin kahden alaulottuvuuden alle. Epäonnistumisen huolen alle kuului yksi luokka: vastuu ja riskit. Huoli itsensä vahingoittamisesta sisälsi kuusi luokkaa: omien taitojen riittämättömyys, käyttämättä jäävät omat vahvuudet, omien arvojen vastainen toiminta, odotusten ristitulessa toimiminen, resurssien puute sekä vertaistuen puute. Huoli muiden vahingoittamisesta sisälsi kolme luokkaa: alaisten tukeminen, viestintä, vuorovaikutus ja palautteenanto sekä henkilöstön motivointi muutoksissa. Lisäksi aineistosta havaittiin kaksi uutta huoliteemaa: luottamus alaisten ja esimiehen välillä sekä organisaatiokulttuurin johtamiseen liittyvät haasteet. Johtajien huolenaiheiden tunnistaminen on tärkeää johtajien työhyvinvoinnin, työyhteisön toimivuuden sekä organisaation menestyksen kannalta. Tietoa johtajien huolenaiheista voidaan hyödyntää suunniteltaessa tukitoimia johtajille ja johtotyöhön aikoville asiantuntijoille.

The present study investigated the factor structure of the 10-item version of the Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS). The DUWAS-10 is intended to measure workaholism with two correlated factors: working excessively (WE) and working compulsively (WC). The factor structure of the DUWAS-10 was examined among multi-occupational samples from the Netherlands (n=9,010) and Finland (n=4,567) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFAs revealed that the expected correlated two-factor solution showed satisfactory fit to the data. However, a second-order factor solution, where WE comprised the first-order factors “working frantically” and “working long hours”, and WC the first-order factors “obsessive work drive” and “unease if not working”, showed significantly better fit to the data. The expectation of factorial group invariance of the second-order factor structure between the Dutch and Finnish samples was also supported. Moreover, factorial time invariance was observed across a two-year time lag in a sub-sample of Finnish managers (n=459). In conclusion, the DUWAS-10 was found to be a comprehensive measure of workaholism, meeting the criteria of factorial validity in multiple settings, and can thus be recommended for use in both research and practice. peerReviewed

This social psychological research takes interest in discovering what spirituality and the concept of oneness look like as expressed by members of the faith of Rastafari. Rastafari is a diverse social, cultural, political, cultural, and a spiritual movement that has made the concept of oneness/one love know to the world through the legendary figure of Bob Marley. This study takes a social scientific look on spirituality as lived reality and foundation for everyday life by members of Rastafari. The data in this study consist of semi-structured interviews, non-formal conversations, and speech produced and yield from the internet by members of the faith as well as field notes and text. 7 Rastafari took part in interviews, most of them Jamaican-born while 2 of them African Rastafari residing in Finland. The study is conducted and handled with an ethnographic method. The most relevant topics seen to the subject of the research are compartmentalized into themes. The themes are analyzed to form a picture of the experiences the members hold on spirituality and oneness. This phase of the process is carried out with content analysis. The study makes use of theories on spirituality and oneness. The most prominent point of reference is Kenneth Gergen s theorization on the relational nature of the self and reality. Theorizations on spirituality in research as well as outside of academia are used as important sources to contextualize and reference to in addition to the study material focused on the phenomenon of Rastafari. Spirituality and oneness are seen by the informants simultaneously other-worldly and grounded in the everyday experience and activities. The research shows that the Afro-centric phenomenon of Rastafari draws also from eastern spiritual tradition in its expression. The movement has grown from local Jamaican phenomenon to a worldwide culture and faith. The forms it takes are thus many and different. With this, the message of the movement has gone deeper from its original only African freedom cause to a spiritual path of realizing the connectivity of all irrespective of one s life story or background. While Rastafari appears as a highly communal phenomenon, it is also experienced as a deeply personal path and a process of endless transformation.

The study investigated inter-organisational differences in employees’ ethical strain and their evaluations of the ethical culture of their organisations. The second aim was to investigate associations between the ethical culture of organisations and employees’ experiences of ethical strain. Altogether 3894 employees responded to a web-based questionnaire in May 2011. Ethical strain was assessed by measuring the prevalence of ethical dilemmas (2 items) and the stress related to them (2 items). Ethical culture was measured using the 58-item Corporate Ethical Virtues scale (Kaptein 2008). Ethical strain was found to be highest among employees working in social and health services. Employees in an engineering company reported the lowest levels of strain. On average the employees surveyed gave quite positive evaluations of their organizations’ ethical culture. Ethical culture was related to ethical strain in all organizations: The lower the evaluations of ethical culture, the more ethical strain was experienced. This study confirms previous results (Huhtala et al. 2011a) demonstrating connections between ethical organizational culture and ethical strain, and calls for more research to increase awareness of the role of ethics in Finnish worklife. peerReviewed

Finnish managers’ self evaluations of their ethical leadership styles and connections to ethical organisational culture The present study analyses managers’ evaluations of their own ethical leadership styles, and the association of these evaluations with the ethicality of their organisation’s culture. The results were based on a questionnaire study with 902 respondents throughout Finland. Sixty-nine point seven percent of respondents were male, ranging from 26 to 69 years old, with an average age of 46. Respondents worked in various managerial levels and business lines, in both large and small organisations. The results showed that managers evaluated both the culture of their organisations and their own leadership styles as quite ethical. Upper managers evaluated their organisations’ ethical culture and their own leadership styles more positively. Managers in finance and insurance evaluated their organisations’ ethical culture more positively, while managers in industry, energy and the building trade and in public administration evaluated their organisations’ ethical culture more negatively. Men considered their organisations to be more ethical than did women, whereas women viewed their own leadership styles as more ethical than those of men. Managers who appraised their own leadership styles as ethical also evaluated the ethical culture of their organisations more positively. peerReviewed