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International audience; Sur les marchés internationaux, les prix des céréales (blé, maïs) et des huiles végétales (colza, tournesol, soja, palme) ont augmenté à partir de la mi-2020. Les biocarburants jouent un rôle majeur dans cette hausse et la guerre en Ukraine, qui a débuté en février 2022, l’a exacerbée. Les biocarburants lient en effet le prix de ces denrées à celui du pétrole : lorsque le prix du pétrole augmente, l’industrie des biocarburants accroît sa demande de maïs et d’huiles végétales. Limiter provisoirement cet usage industriel ferait baisser leurs prix. De plus, en cas de hausse du prix du riz, une solution serait d’autoriser le Japon à exporter son stock de riz constitué dans le cadre des règles de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC). Afin de prévenir les crises futures, ces deux leviers pourraient être déclenchés dès que les prix internationaux de ces denrées agricoles atteignent des niveaux prédéfinis.

Minyak kelapa sawit adalah minyak nabati yang paling banyak dikonsumsi dunia. Setengah dari produksinya berasal dari Indonesia, walaupun perluasannya telah dikritik dari sudut pandang lingkungan. Pengurangan dampak lingkungan perkebunan melalui praktik pengelolaan limbah yang lebih baik sangat penting untuk mencapai produksi yang lebih bersih. Dalam konteks ini, penelitian difokuskan pada pengomposan, praktik yang semakin banyak diterapkan di agroindustri. Penelitian bertujuan untuk menguji pengomposan produk samping pabrik kelapa sawit yaitu tandan kosong kelapa sawit ( TKKS ) dan limbah cair pabrik kelapa sawit ( LCPKS ), pada rasio LCPKS / TKKS dan frekuensi pembalikan yang berbeda. Setelah 60 hari, kompos masih dalam fase mesofilik dan tidak dapat dianggap sebagai kompos matang karena rasio C/N dan suhu yang tinggi. Penurunan bobot dan volume yang tinggi telah dicapai masing-masing sebesar 40% dan 60%, serta penguapan air yang signifikan dari LCPKS dan TKKS (60%). Rasio LCPKS terhadap TKKS pada 1 – 1.5 m 3 /ton adalah optimal untuk mencapai kelembaban (65-70%), ruang udara bebas (>50%) dan pemulihan nutrisi, juga menunjukkan bahwa dalam kondisi percobaan ini proses pengomposan tidak dapat menggunakan semua LCPKS yang diproduksi oleh pabrik (3m 3 /ton TKKS ). Tingkat pemulihan nutrisi mendekati 100% untuk fosfor, kalium dan magnesium, sedangkan untuk nitrogen terjadi kehilangan sekitar 30-35%. Pengomposan dengan platform beton dan beratap, tidak melakukan penyemprotan pada tumpukan secara berlebihan, dan mendaur ulang semua limbah cair merupakan hal penting untuk mencapai efisiensi pemulihan nutrisi yang tinggi dan untuk mengontrol kualitas kompos akhir. [Kata kunci : pengomposan, tandan kosong, pemulihan nutrisi, kelapa sawit, limbah cair pabrik kelapa sawit, keberlanjutan] Abstract Palm oil is the most consumed edible oil in the world. Roughly half of the production originates from Indonesia, where the expansion of the crop has been criticized from an environmental perspective. Reducing the environmental impact of plantations through better waste management practices is critical to achieve cleaner production. In this context, our study was focused on composting, a practice increasingly adopted among agro-industries. Our trial was designed to test co-composting of the main palm oil mill by-products – empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) – under different POME/EFB ratios and turning frequencies. After 60 days the compost was still in a mesophilic phase and could not be considered as mature compost due to high C/N ratio and temperature. High weight and volume reduction were achieved (40% and 60% respectively), as well as significant water evaporation from the POME and EFB (60%). We found that a POME to EFB ratio of 1 to 1.5 m 3 /ton was optimal for moisture (65-70%), free air space (>50%) and nutrient recovery, showing that in our experimental conditions the composting process could not use all the POME produced by the mill (3m 3 /ton of EFB). The nutrient recovery rate was close to 100% for phosphorus, potassium and magnesium. For nitrogen we observed 30-35% of losses. Composting on a concrete platform with a roof, not over-spraying the piles and recycling all the leachates are critical points to achieve high nutrient recovery efficiency and to control final compost quality. [Keywords: composting, empty fruit bunch, nutrient recovery, oil palm, palm oil mill effluent, sustainability]

Résumé La question est lancinante depuis près d’une décennie: comment satisfaire la demande en huile de palme au Cameroun ? Elle préside concomitamment à des débats houleux entre les enjeux socioéconomiques et écologiques qui se formulent et participent, depuis lors, d’un véritable dilemme. Reste que la demande en huile de palme pour des besoins alimentaires et industriels est sans cesse croissante et exige d’être satisfaite. Cet article examine les stratégies des acteurs de la deuxième transformation et du gouvernement pour satisfaire la demande nationale en huile de palme. Les analyses exploitent les données et rapports des agro-industries, de la Direction des Douanes et des institutions spécialisées, notamment l’Institut National de Statistique. Il ressort que le déficit national de production de l’huile de palme est d’environ 130 mille tonnes depuis 2013 impliquant des importations d’environ 100 mille tonnes par an. Ce déficit et ces importations sont exacerbés par les raffineries dont la capacité installée de transformation est évaluée à 1,57 millions de tonnes par an. La satisfaction de la demande en huile de palme oppose les tenants de l’importation de l’huile brute et les partisans du renforcement de la production locale. Les enjeux économiques qui alimentent ce débat s’articulent au-delà du Cameroun et concerne les pays limitrophes et lointains avec l’essor du débat sur les impacts environnementaux de la filière palmier à huile. Abstract The question has been nagging for almost a decade: how to meet the demand for palm oil in Cameroon? At the same time, she presides over heated debates between the socioeconomic and ecological issues that are emerging and, since then, have been part of a real dilemma. Still, the demand for palm oil for food and industrial needs is constantly growing and needs to be satisfied. This article examines the strategies of secondary processing actors and government to meet the national demand for palm oil. Analyses use data and reports from agro-industries, the Customs Department and specialized institutions, in particular the National Institute of Statistics. It appears that the national palm oil production deficit has been around 130,000 tons since 2013, implying imports of around 100,000 tons per year. This deficit and these imports are exacerbated by refineries whose installed processing capacity is estimated at 1.57 million tons per year. Satisfying demand for palm oil pits proponents of importing crude oil against those in favor of strengthening local production. The economic issues that fuel this debate extend beyond Cameroon and concern neighboring and distant countries with the rise of the debate on the environmental impacts of the palm oil sector. Keywords: Cameroon, palm oil, production, import, deficit

Due to its controversies, oil palm cultivation has been targeted by regulatory innovations. Among these, transnational efforts—such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) and corporate commitments to zero deforestation have been highly influential but often tend to overvalue environmental over socio-economic outcomes. This article discusses to what extent domestic governance models of palm oil producing countries can be better equipped to reconcile domestic demands such as economic development and poverty alleviation, and transnational concerns about forest conservation. We do so by looking into the Brazilian case, where the government intended to drive oil palm expansion in the Amazon through a program launched in 2010 that simultaneously only allowed expansion into already deforested areas and offered companies incentives to engage smallholder farmers in their supply chains. Our findings, drawn from primary research activities and existing literature, indicate that Brazil has managed to avoid deforestation typically associated with oil palm expansion elsewhere. Oil palm establishment involved the conversion of 0.8% and 1.3% of primary forests for corporate and smallholder plantations, respectively. However, the Brazilian government did not manage to optimally enhance smallholder participation in the sector, as significant differences in performance were observed between farmers, ranging from very successful (17%) to highly unsuccessful (12%); and failed to achieve sectoral development and competitiveness targets. While some failings can be attributed to external factors such as context, broader domestic governance frameworks and alignments, and private supply chain initiatives, the program itself did not manage to reconcile social, environmental and economic objectives into a single coherent sectoral governance model. Yet, this case study suggests that domestic governance strategies can enable commodity production in a way that is more coherent with national priorities, at the same time as preventing deforestation and minimizing social risks more effectively.

La biodiversité est sur le déclin depuis des décennies, profilant à l’avenir la « 6ème extinction de masse ». La culture du palmier à huile a conduit à la conversion accélérée des forêts tropicales depuis les années 1910, ce qui en fait la plus grande menace directe à la biodiversité en Asie du Sud-Est. Dans ce travail nous avons répertorié les principales techniques de suivi, de quantification et d’échantillonnage de la biodiversité animale terrestre, et leurs critères de sélection selon les objectifs d’enquête et de gestion. La finalité de ce travail est la proposition d’un plan de monitoring de la biodiversité animale terrestre pour le projet TRAILS. Ce projet, mené par l’ONG HUTAN et le Cirad, vise la création de paysages agricoles innovants favorables au retour de la biodiversité dans les palmeraies en Malaisie. Afin d’en évaluer l’efficacité, nous proposons un plan en 3 temps : une évaluation de surface par la bioacoustique, qui statuera la richesse spécifique des parcelles ; une évaluation de la différence de biodiversité entre parcelles grâce à l’ADN environnemental ; et le camera-trapping afin de distinguer une recolonisation vraie d’une contamination de lisière.

Over the last decade, people have been questioning the composition of medicines and cosmetic products before purchasing them. This interest increased with the arrival of new smartphone applications which can mark products and give information about their composition. A number of excipients are known to be controversial, i.e. are subject of a discussion which emerges from the population’s different opinions following the publication of scientific studies. The controversy may result from public concern about an excipient which could potentially be hazardous to human health. Such excipients include titanium dioxide and parabens. Titanium dioxide has many functions: colourant, opacifier, sun filter... It is now suspected of being a carcinogenic agent. Parabens are used as preservatives and are accused of being endocrine disruptors. The controversy over excipients can also be related to their environmental impact such as palm oil and silicones. Palm oil is used as an emollient, moisturizer or surfactant and has many derivatives. However, this substance is contentious as it is believed to be responsible for massive deforestation. Finally, silicones, used for their sensory qualities, are now being questioned as they appear to be non-biodegradable and would pollute the aquatic environment. Because of all these controversies and in order to meet the demands of the population, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries are seeking for solutions to replace these contentious excipients and alternatives have now been found.; Depuis une dizaine d’année, la population se questionne sur la composition des médicaments et des produits cosmétiques avant de les acheter. Cet intérêt s’est intensifié avec l’arrivée de nouvelles applications pour téléphone qui permettent de noter les produits et leurs compositions. Un certain nombre d’excipients font l’objet d’une controverse, c’est-à-dire d’une discussion sur les différentes opinions de la population suite à la publication d’études scientifiques. La controverse peut résulter d’une inquiétude de la population face à un excipient potentiellement dangereux pour la santé humaine. Parmi ces excipients figurent le dioxyde de titane et les parabènes. Le dioxyde de titane possède de nombreuses fonctions : colorant, opacifiant, filtre solaire... Il est aujourd’hui suspecté d’être un agent cancérogène. Les parabènes sont utilisés comme agents conservateurs et sont accusés d’être des perturbateurs endocriniens. La controverse vis-à-vis des excipients peut aussi porter sur leur impact environnemental comme l’huile de palme et les silicones. L’huile de palme est utilisée comme émollient, hydratant ou tensioactif et possède de nombreux dérivés. Mais cette substance est controversée car elle serait responsable de déforestations massives. Enfin, les silicones, utilisés pour leurs qualités sensorielles, sont aujourd’hui remis en question car ils ne seraient pas biodégradables et pollueraient l’environnement aquatique. En raison de toutes ces controverses et afin de répondre aux exigences de la population, les industries pharmaceutiques et cosmétiques cherchent des solutions afin de remplacer ces excipients controversés et des alternatives ont été trouvées.

Deux chercheurs du Cirad nous font part ici de leurs réflexions sur le développement de la production de l'huile de palme, en particulier pour une utilisation comme biocarburant. Compte tenu des nombreux débats en cours sur cette question, il nous a paru pertinent de publier ce texte dans la revue afin de stimuler des échanges sur les points qui y sont abordés ou seulement évoqués. Nous retiendrons notamment, en amont, la question de l'usage des terres, en particulier lorsque le déstockage du carbone des sols mis en culture se fait sur de longues périodes. Une autre question importante est celle des effets sur les sociétés concernées, que ce soit les éleveurs exclus, les travailleurs dans les plantations ou les exploitants familiaux qui, au gré des cours mondiaux et des réglementations, doivent prendre des décisions affectant différemment, selon les productions, les immobilisations foncières et les conditions de travail…

International audience; The adoption of palm oil sustainability standards remains limited, especially among plantation companies. This is a concern since plantation companies are pivotal for the palm oil industry, not only because of their own production but because they form an important nucleus for smallholders. Using a panel technique, this study investigates the drivers underlying the certification of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) standard by plantation companies in Malaysia. We examine the period between 2007 and 2016. Panel logistics analysis allows for changes in variables, including company capacity (proportion of planted area and debt-to-equity ratio) and the time-dependent price of crude palm oil. Despite the fact that these variables influence adoption, our findings reveal that adoption is found to be elastic to changes only in proportion to the planted area. Plantation companies that have undertaken conservation efforts may present “low-hanging fruits”. Given the currently limited response to adoption, a partially targeted approach encompassing education and technical assistance, financial assistance, and regulation is recommended to create a more inclusive and enabling environment.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are nutritional pathologies, characterized by a subclinical inflammatory state. Endotoiins are now well recognized as an important factor implicated in the onset and maintain of this inflammatory state during fat digestion in high-fat diet. As a preventive strategy, lipid formulation could be optimized to limit these phenomena, notably regarding fatty acid profile and PL emulsifier content. Little is known about soybean polar lipid (SPL) consumption associated to oils rich in saturated FA vs. anti-inflammatory omega-3 FA such as alpha-linolenic acid on inflammation and metabolic endotoxemia. We then investigated in mice the effect of different synthetic diets enriched with two different oils, palm oil or flaxseed oil and containing or devoid of SPL on adipose tissue inflammation and endotoxin receptors. In both groups containing SPL, adipose tissue (WAT) increased compared with groups devoid of SPL and an induction of MCP-1 and LBP was observed in WAT. However, only the high-fat diet in which flaxseed oil was associated with SPL resulted in both higher WAT inflammation and higher circulating sCD14 in plasma. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that LPS transporters LBP and sCD14 and adipose tissue inflammation can be modulated by SPL in high fat diets differing in oil composition. Notably high-flaxseed oil diet exerts a beneficial metabolic impact, however blunted by PL addition. Our study suggests that nutritional strategies can be envisaged by optimizing dietary lipid sources in manufactured products, including fats/oils and polar lipid emulsifiers, in order to limit the inflammatory impact of palatable foods.

The adoption of sustainable palm oil standards remains voluntary. It is unclear whether early adopters achieve better financial performance than those who lag in adopting. This study examines how the profitability, in terms of the return on invested capital (ROIC) of plantation companies is impacted by the entry order of the adoption of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) sustainability standard. Based on the 2000–2016 panel data of the 39 plantation companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange, this study has demonstrated profitability as being influenced by the timing of entry (adoption), related resource allocation, business efficiency, and the price of crude palm oil. Since early adopters (plantation companies) realised a positive relationship with ROIC, the presence of an early mover advantage can be hypothesised. This positional advantage is likely to yield both operating and capital efficiencies, such as those predicated in the good management practices of the RSPO standard. This finding is useful as a motivational strategy to augment the acceptance of international palm oil standards among plantation companies, which are often a nucleus to smallholders. The implications for firms adopting other sustainability standards are also discussed.

International audience

The global palm oil value chain has grown in complexity; stakeholder relationships and linkages are increasingly shaped by new public and private standards that aim to ameliorate social and environmental costs while harnessing economic gains. Regulatory initiatives in the emerging policy regime complex struggle to resolve sector-wide structural performance issues: pervasive land conflicts, yield differences between companies and smallholders, and carbon emissions arising from deforestation and peatland conversion. Identifying opportunities for more effective governance of the palm oil value chain and supply landscapes, this paper explores disconnects, complementarities, and antagonisms between public regulations and private standards, looking at the global, national, and subnational policy domains shaping chain actors’ conduct. Greater complementarities have emerged among transnational instruments, but state regulation disconnects persist and antagonisms prevail between national state regulations and transnational private standards. Emerging experimental approaches, particularly at subnational level, aim to improve coordination to both enhance complementarities and resolve disconnects.

Drastic movements of global commodity prices and their impact on the Thai palm oil market is a major concern due to Thailand being the third largest producer of crude palm oil (CPO). Although the country is not a net importer, global price changes of the commodity can transmit to domestic markets for palm oil products. This paper analyzed the transmission of Malaysian CPO and world crude oil price changes to the changes in the Thai CPO price using an asymmetric error correction model. The price data used in this paper covers the period from January 1996 to September 2015. The findings showed that the speed of adjustments towards long-run equilibrium were asymmetric and the effects of the world prices on Thai CPO price were significant in both positive and negative deviations. This result calls for policy measures to mitigate the impact of global price movements because CPO is an essential intermediate input in various products and any changes in the Thai CPO price definitely affects the welfare of domestic consumers.

Effet du stockage post-récolte et de la congélation des fruits de palme sur le rendement d'extraction et la qualité de l'huile de palme brute. Dans le contexte africain de l'extraction artisanale d'huile de palme brute (HPB), cette étude s'intéressait aux effets du stockage post-récolte et de la congélation des fruits du palmier sur le rendement d'extraction et la qualité des HPB. Les résultats confirment que rendement d'extraction et teneur en acides gras libres (AGL) des HPB augmentent avec la durée de stockage et la congélation. Le niveau maximal de lipolyse s'observe pour des fruits congelés 1 ou 3 jours après récolte. Les profils d'AGL, d'acides gras totaux et de triglycérides ne montrent pas de spécificité des lipases. Une diminution modérée de la teneur en caroténoïdes accompagnée de teneurs en tocophérols et tocotriénols (tocols) stables et de faibles niveaux d'oxydation sont observés lors du stockage. La congélation provoque une forte diminution des teneurs en caroténoïdes et tocols. Niveau d'oxydation et teneurs en AGL des HPB, très fortement corrélés, montrent l'effet pro-oxydant des AGL. Le stockage à température ambiante combiné à la congélation des fruits produit donc des HPB avec des teneurs en AGL très contrastées, trois jours de stockage semblant le meilleur compromis entre rendement d'extraction et qualité des HPB. L'optimisation pour des consommateurs locaux des teneurs en AGL des HPB artisanales nécessite l'évaluation de leurs propriétés fonctionnelles et de leur acceptabilité sensorielle.; In the frame of African artisanal small-scale extraction of palm oil, the effects of post-harvest storage time and freezing of palm fruits on the extraction yield and quality of crude palm oil (CPO) were studied at laboratory scale using a process mimicking artisanal extraction. The extraction yield and free fatty acid (FFA) content of CPO increased with the length of fruit storage time at room temperature and freezing. FFA, total fatty acid and triacylglycerol profiles indicated a lack of specificity of the lipases at work. During post-harvest storage, the carotenoid content of CPO decreased slightly, tocopherols and tocotrienols (tocols) remained steady, while lipid oxidation remained at a very low level. For frozen fruits, carotene and tocol contents decreased sharply as a function of storage time, thought remaining quite high, but decreasing amounts of secondary oxidation products were detected. The FFA content and lipid oxidation level were highly correlated, indicating a pro-oxidant effect of FFAs. To conclude, three days of storage prior to artisanal extraction seemed the best trade-off between extraction yield and CPO quality. Combined storage at room temperature and freezing of palm fruits led to a large range of FFA contents in CPO. Optimization of the FFA contents of artisanal CPOs in line with local consumer's demand calls for an assessment of their functional properties and sensory perception of foods formulated with CPOs.

Plante oleagineuse d'exception, le palmier a huile possede des atouts naturels pour repondre aux defis combines de la securite alimentaire et de l'intensification ecologique. La production d'huile de palme repose sur une filiere agroalimentaire globale, revelatrice des enjeux nord/sud dans leur dimension economique, sociale et environnementale. Cet article decrit une filiere mondialisee, portee par des acteurs multiples. Il en montre les enjeux en matiere d'agronomie et d'environnement, et pose les conditions de la production durable d'huile de palme, en reponse a une demande croissante de tracabilite et de responsabilite environnementale et sociale.

The research developed in this Thesis seeks to provide greater understanding on the determinants of poverty and well-being in developing countries and, by doing so, to highlight several paths to achieve the two first Sustainable Development Goals of the Agenda 2030. Starting with national data, to deepen the analysis using individual and household level data, this Thesis explores the types of social deprivations that characterize poverty and the factors that have a significant impact on some of them such as the nutritional health of children. It begins with a macroeconomic analysis for 64 developing economies, to continue with an analysis based on survey data for Guatemala, and finalizes with an impact evaluation using more specific individual data from a health program implemented by the Foundation FUNDAP in the western regions of the same country. More precisely, Chapter 1 analyses the relationship between development aid and poverty reduction, a topic for which previous studies have not yet produced conclusive results. Chapter 2 aims to understand and evaluate to what extent the expansion of african palm crop in Guatemala (agro-export sector) contributes to increasing food insecurity, as measured by higher child undernutrition. The last study presented in Chapter 3, seeks to evaluate the impact of a nutritional intervention in West Guatemala, called « Volunteers in Health », which operates at the community level and builds capacity by training individuals (90% women) on issues related to child nutrition and basic nursing.; Les différents travaux développés dans cette Thèse visent à fournir une meilleure compréhension des déterminants de la pauvreté et du bien-être dans les pays en développement. Ce faisant, ils permettent de suggérer plusieurs pistes permettant d’atteindre les deux premiers objectifs du Programme de Développement Durable à l’horizon 2030 élaboré par les Nations Unies. En partant de données macroéconomiques, et en approfondissant notre analyse à l’aide de données au niveau des ménages, cette Thèse explore les types de privations sociales qui caractérisent la pauvreté, ainsi que les principaux facteurs influençant certaines de ces privations telles que la santé nutritionnelle des enfants. La Thèse débute par une étude macroéconomique couvrant 64 pays en développement, se poursuit par une analyse reposant sur des données d’enquête relatives au Guatemala, et se termine par une évaluation de l’impact d’un programme de santé mis en œuvre par la Fondation FUNDAP dans les régions occidentales du même pays en utilisant des données individuelles plus spécifiques. Plus précisément, le premier Chapitre analyse la relation entre aide au développement et réduction de la pauvreté, un sujet sur lequel les études existantes n’ont pas débouché jusqu’à présent sur des résultats tranchés. Le Chapitre 2 vise à comprendre et à évaluer dans quelle mesure le développement de la production d’huile de palme au Guatemala (secteur agro-exportateur) contribue à accroître l'insécurité alimentaire, mesurée ici par une plus forte dénutrition observée chez les enfants. La dernière étude développée dans le troisième et dernier Chapitre cherche à évaluer les incidences de la mise en place d’un programme nutritionnel dans l’Ouest du Guatemala, appelé « Volontaires en Santé », qui opère au niveau des communautés et vise à renforcer les capacités des individus (90% de femmes) en leur donnant une formation ciblée sur la nutrition des enfants et les soins médicaux de base.

A RARSeq based Association mapping study was performed in a population of 104 Elaeis oleifera x E. guineensis hybrids of five origins with the aim of finding functional markers associated to six productive and 19 oil quality traits. For this purpose mRNA of each genotype was isolated and double stranded cDNA was synthesized. Following digestion with two restriction enzymes and adapter ligation, a size selected pool of barcoded amplicons was produced and sequenced using Illumina MiSeq. The obtained sequences were processed with a “snakemake” pipeline, filtered and missing values were imputed. For all traits except two significant effects of the origin was observed. Genetic diversity analyses revealed high variability within origins and an excess of heterozygosity in the population. Two GLM models with Q matrix or PCA matrix as covariates and two MLM models incorporating in addition a Kinship matrix were tested for genotype-phenotype associations using GAPIT software. Using unadjusted p values (< 0.01) 78 potential associations were detected involving 25 SNP and 20 traits. When applying FDR multiple testing with p < 0.05, 25 significant associations remained involving eight SNP and six quality traits. Four SNP were located in genes with a potential relevant biological meaning. © 2019 Elsevier B.V.

Parmi les instruments normatifs contemporains de régulation, les standards privés et volontaires relèvent d’un véritable mode nouveau de gouvernement en quête de légitimité. A partir du standard RSPO (Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil), nous analysons le modèle politique normatif sous-jacent aux initiatives dites multi-stakeholders. En s’appuyant sur une composition libérale du commun, ces initiatives remodèlent et transforment des éléments de droits internationaux tels que la notion de consentement des peuples (Free Prior and Informed Consent) que des ONG ont introduite dans le standard. Nous comparons le gouvernement RSPO » au droit national et au fonctionnement d’un Etat quant à ses fonctions légitimes et principes idéaux. Nous comparons en particulier les fonctions de police et de justice et leurs modalités d’expression. Enfin, nous abordons les questions soulevées par le pluralisme des modes de normativité et d’évaluation confrontés dans ce gouvernement. Les préoccupations des parties prenantes reconnues comme les plus vulnérables ("petits planteurs", "communautés locales") doivent être transformées (et réduites) pour être recevables dans le standard RSPO et son gouvernement, qu’il s’agisse d’expressions de leur accord pour l’usage de terres par des entreprises privées, de demandes ou de plaintes qu’elles déposent. Among contemporary normative instruments of regulation, private and voluntary standards are a new mode of government in search of legitimacy. By considering the RSPO standard (Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil), we analyze the normative political model underlying the so-called "multi-stakeholder" initiatives. Relying on a liberal composition of commonality and difference, these initiatives reshape elements of international human rights such as the notion of people’s consent (Free Prior and Informed Consent) that NGOs introduced in the standard. We compare the "RSPO government" to national law, and the functioning of a state with respect to its legitimate functions and ideal principles, in particular, police and justice functions. Finally, we address the issues raised by the plurality of modes of normativity and evaluation in the RSPO government. The most vulnerable stakeholders’ ("smallholders’", "local communities’") concerns have to be reshaped (and reduced) into formats that are accepted by the RSPO standard and government, when expressing their agreement for the use of their lands by corporations, or filing claims or complaints.

In order to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of indigenous S. cerevisiae from Côte d'Ivoire, a total of 170 strains were isolated from four traditional alcoholic beverages through nine regions. Microsatellite analysis performed at 12 loci revealed that strains of palm oil and raffia wine were genetically related, unlike those of tchapalo and ron wine which formed two s from palm oil wine and raffia wine were clearly inbred. In comparison with the European, North American, Asian and others West African populations, Ivorian population was well defined, although most of these strains were admixed. Among these strains, only isolates from raffia wine appeared to have alleles in common to all populations.