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AbstractCommunity forests (CFs) involve communities in decision-making about, management of and access to forests, and have potential to benefit both communities and forests. However, they lack a single definition, clear distinction from related topics, or method for identification. This perspectives article explores historical and current literature on CFs and proposes a conceptual framework for understanding CFs and related concepts in the U.S. context. Through that exploration, we propose a conceptual framework for understanding their meaning and relationship. We propose three potential pathways for identifying CFs in the U.S., each with advantages and disadvantages. CFs can be identified by using a criteria and indicators approach; by participation in programs or networks designated for CFs; or by their own self-identification as a CF. We suggest that using a hybrid of these approaches will produce the most robust process for knowing a community forest when we see one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community forest management (CFM) has gained prominence globally and shown great value as a community-based conservation approach to protecting and sustainably managing forest ecosystems while, at the same time, devolving tenure rights to local populations and stimulating local livelihoods and economies. Given CFM's relative successes and socioeconomic goals, it is often assumed to be an inherently just approach. Here, we challenge that assumption. We present a framework rooted in environmental justice to uncover how some initiatives can perpetuate or exacerbate unfairness and thus undermine the core purpose and spirit of CFM. We put forward three questions on the fairness of CFM programs. First, we call to question the imposition of new CFM-related restrictions and rules, considering Indigenous and local communities' legal autonomy and/or long-standing de facto rights. Second, we interrogate the burden of CFM-related economic costs and opportunity costs, in light of communities' poverty conditions and vulnerable livelihoods. Third, we examine the fairness of focusing on the role of local communities in tackling deforestation and forest degradation, given these groups might not be the ones primarily responsible for those problems. Our discussion exposes several contradictions, trade-offs and justice implications of CFM that have remained largely unrecognized. We conclude by providing recommendations for a more just approach that centers a rights-needs-merit rationale. Our analysis is relevant for community-based conservation efforts around the globe. • We challenge the assumption that CFM initiatives are inherently just. • By imposing restrictions, CFM can perpetuate (autonomy) rights violations. • Imposing conservation-economy trade-offs on impoverished groups furthers inequalities. • CFM costs are even more unfair given communities are not the main driver of climate change. • We call for a more just approach to CFM that centers a rights-needs-merit rationale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nepal's forest cover nearly doubled over the last three decades. While Community Forest (CF) management and agricultural abandonment are primary drivers of forest cover expansion, the contribution of afforestation on privately managed land is not well documented. We mapped forest cover change from 1988 through 2016 in 40 privately managed sites that transitioned from agriculture to forest and assessed how agricultural abandonment influenced private land management and afforestation. We used a mixed method analysis to integrate our 29-year Landsat satellite image-based record of annual forest cover with interview data on historical land cover and land use dynamics from 65 land managers in Bagmati Province. We find that privately managed land accounted for 37% of local forest cover gain, with mean forest area within private forests growing from 9% to 59%. Land managers identified two factors driving these gains on private land: implementation of CF management in adjacent government forests and out-migration. These previously undocumented linkages between forest cover gain on private land and CF management merits further research in community forests and calls for greater policy and technical support for small-scale timber growers and rural households who rely on private forests for income generation. • 29-year remote sensing analysis links forest change to migration & community Forestry. • CF management inspired farmers to grow forest resources on their private land. • Out-migration induced agricultural abandonment was followed by smallholder forestry. • Land managers actively shifted land use in response to community forestry & migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the co-authors discuss how Indigenous theories are operationalized using an indigenist methodology grounded in intercultural collaboration. We describe the specific methodological considerations and methods that were incorporated into a decolonizing strategy for conducting research and co-creating knowledge with the Yine-Yami and Asheninka peoples of the Peruvian Amazon, including: (1) working with Indigenous co-researchers; (2) considering community members and federation officials as allies or collaborators instead of participants or researched subjects; (3) cultivating relational accountability and creating a research protocol by reflecting on the assumptions, motivations and values for conducting research with Indigenous peoples; (4) having each community ally identify desirable outcomes of the research; (5) sharing control of the design and delivery of the methodology; and (6) having collaborators validate co-created knowledge as the research was conducted. We argue that indigenist approaches are more appropriate frameworks for interacting with Indigenous peoples than methodologies typically deployed by Peruvian public organizations. With some adaptation, the methodology developed here could be used to conduct more respectful, meaningful and culturally sensitive research with Indigenous and historically oppressed groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

REDD+ has emerged as a key component of climate mitigation strategies in developing countries. Small and medium forest enterprises (SMFEs) can contribute towards the achievement of REDD+ goals through conservation, sustainable use of forests, and enhancement of carbon stocks, while simultaneously improving local livelihoods and contributing to local economies. Thus, the promotion of SMFEs can be thought of as an important component of a nation’s REDD+ strategy. This study assesses the degree to which enabling environments for SMFEs are being promoted in countries that are in the midst of becoming REDD-ready. It uses an analytical framework, developed from a literature review on small-scale forestry-enabling environments, to conduct a qualitative content analysis of REDD-readiness documents that 41 countries have submitted to multi-lateral funders and assess the degree to which enabling environments for small-scale forest enterprises are being promoted under the auspices of REDD+. Despite a general recognition of the importance of SMFEs in REDD+ schemes, most countries failed to propose strategies and actions for improving enabling environments, particularly with respect to internal business capacities. Priority areas for investment of REDD-readiness funds that will deliver returns for both carbon and livelihoods through SMFEs are identified and enumerated. Policy relevance Small and medium forest enterprises (SMFEs) – with their potential to bring about high returns in terms of livelihoods, forest management, and climate change mitigation when compared to alternative forest uses – represent a potentially formidable tool for successful REDD+ implementation. By uncovering gaps in countries’ REDD-readiness with regards to SMFEs, results from this work can be used to design appropriate climate policies that will foment pro-poor REDD+ implementation that creates appropriate enabling environments for SMFEs to thrive. Doing so will not only reduce emissions, but it will also deliver substantial co-benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation and development practitioners increasingly promote community forestry as a way to conserve ecosystem services, consolidate resource rights, and reduce poverty. However, outcomes of community forestry have been mixed; many initiatives failed to achieve intended objectives. There is a rich literature on institutional arrangements of community forestry, but there has been little effort to examine the role of socioeconomic, market, and biophysical factors in shaping both land-cover change dynamics and individual and collective livelihood outcomes. We systematically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature on community forestry to examine and quantify existing knowledge gaps in the community-forestry literature relative to these factors. In examining 697 cases of community forest management (CFM), extracted from 267 peer-reviewed publications, we found 3 key trends that limit understanding of community forestry. First, we found substantial data gaps linking population dynamics, market forces, and biophysical characteristics to both environmental and livelihood outcomes. Second, most studies focused on environmental outcomes, and the majority of studies that assessed socioeconomic outcomes relied on qualitative data, making comparisons across cases difficult. Finally, there was a heavy bias toward studies on South Asian forests, indicating that the literature on community forestry may not be representative of decentralization policies and CFM globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Oaxacan community forest enterprises face trade-offs between their social performance and more profit-oriented aims. • Organizational features adopted to increase profit often hurt aspects of social performance such as trust and participation. • Communities actively navigated and, in some cases, mitigated trade-offs between their social and financial performance. • The trade-offs we found among community forest enterprises can also be found among other forms of social enterprise. • Acknowledging trade-offs allows communities to better weigh and respond to the consequences of organizational changes. Community forest enterprises (CFEs) have been promoted globally in conservation and rural development initiatives. CFEs, which are considered social firms, commercialize various forest products and services to provide income, employment, public goods, and services. However, as with other social firms, CFEs may experience a tension between generating revenue and fulfilling their social mission. We explored this tension through a qualitative case study that examined the organizational choices of four CFEs in Oaxaca, Mexico, including the processes and practices they adopted that prioritized their social mission or more profit-oriented aims, and the way they navigated the tensions between their social and financial goals. Interviews revealed that the different organizational features of CFEs, including leadership structures, decision-making processes, enterprise locations, and benefit-distribution schemes, often elevated CFEs' social mission or more profit-oriented aims, typically at the cost of the other. With some exceptions, we found that the organizational processes and practices CFEs adopted to generate more revenue often negatively impacted trust, transparency, and participation. We build on scholarship that has documented tensions between historical communal governance and enterprise management in Mexico by demonstrating how communities are modifying their organizational structures in ways that blur the lines between traditional governance and enterprise management and, in some cases, in ways that mitigate trade-offs. Better understanding organization and associated trade-offs may allow CFEs–or other stakeholders interested in their proliferation and success–to make more transparent and deliberate decisions and avoid or adapt to undesirable outcomes and unanticipated consequences. As CFEs are promoted and replicated globally, our study is an important step in understanding the perverse outcomes and unintended feedbacks that arise from enterprise organization and illustrates the tension between social and financial performance in CFEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two province-wide surveys of residents in Alberta and British Columbia were conducted to assess the acceptability of a range of reforestation strategies - many of which revolve around biotechnology - that could be used to aid western Canada's forests in adapting to future climate change. The opinions of leaders of forest-dependent communities were also sought to evaluate how well they align with those of the public at large. Results show that the views of the general public and community leaders correspond. There is a low acceptance for a 'do-nothing' strategy that allows climate change to run its course without any human intervention; high acceptance of replanting with local seeds; a decreasing acceptance of strategies that involve more manipulation such as breeding, using nonlocal seeds, and moving seeds outside of a species' natural range; and a low acceptance of genetically engineered solutions. However, a high proportion of respondents changed their answers when told that a particular strategy would lead to either favourable or unfavourable outcomes related to socioeconomics of forest-dependent communities, forest aesthetics, and pest, disease, and fire outbreaks. We conclude that a meaningful and participatory dialogue on forest adaptation strategies in the face of climate change can only emerge if residents and other interested stakeholders have an adequate understanding of current forest management practices, proposed reforestation strategies, the role of technological interventions, and the values and services for which western Canada's forests are to be managed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decentralization of forest governance has been promoted as a way to conserve forests more effectively, while also improving rural and forest-dependent livelihoods. Prior to assessing the consequences of this decentralization trend, there is a need to critically examine the degree to which decentralization of forest management decision making is actually happening. In particular, it is unclear whether communities are securing legal authority and/or decision-making power over the forests on which they depend. This study uses case studies of community forestry in Brazil and Mexico to examine the amount of decision-making power communities and smallholders have received over forest resources. A framework for assessment is developed that identifies criteria of relevance to community members' rights and day-to-day activities. We found that in both countries the government maintains significant control over forest resources through heavy regulation of extraction, but that communities have increasing control over day-to-day forest management decisions. We conclude by posing questions on the appropriate levels of decentralization for optimal outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community forestry initiatives have been shown to reduce rural poverty while promoting the conservation and sustainable use of forests. However, a number of challenges face communities wanting to initiate or maintain formal, community-based forest management. Through a grounded theory approach, this paper uses three case studies of community forest management models in the eastern Amazon to create a framework showing challenges faced by communities at different phases of formal management. The framework shows that, in the development phase, four root problems (land ownership, knowledge acquisition, community organization, and adequate capital) need to be addressed to obtain legal management permission. With this permission in hand, further challenges to operationalization are presented (deterring illegal loggers, maintaining infrastructure, obtaining necessary managerial skills and accessing markets). The interrelatedness of these challenges emphasizes that all challenges need to be addressed in a holistic manner for communities to maintain a profitable and self-sufficient operation. This contradicts current development approaches that only address part of this framework. The framework proposed here can be used as a starting point for community forestry initiatives in other regions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Few studies have addressed the relationship between genetic diversity and provision of ecosystem services in agroecosystems. In this review, we argue that the contribution of biological diversity to ecosystem functioning in agricultural production systems is variable, but can be substantial, and occurs at the genetic, as well as species, level in arable systems. In particular, we look at the potential benefits of crop genetic diversity in enhancing agroecosystem functioning and the provision of services, both directly and indirectly. Increasing crop genetic diversity has shown to be useful in pest and disease management, and has the potential to enhance pollination services and soil processes in specific situations. By contributing to the long-term stability of agroecosystems and helping to provide continuous biomass cover, crop genetic diversity also aids the ecosystem to sequester carbon, and helps in preventing soil erosion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The use of crop wild relatives (CWR) genes to improve crop performance is well established with important examples dating back more than 60 years. In this paper, we review available information on the presence of genes from CWR in released cultivars of 16 mandate crops of the CGIAR institutes, and some selected additional crops, focusing on the past 20 years—the period since a comprehensive review by Robert and Christine Prescott-Allen in 1986. It appears that there has been a steady increase in the rate of release of cultivars containing genes from CWR. While there continues to be a strong emphasis on using pest and disease resistance genes, a wider range of characteristics are being introduced than in the past. Those crops whose wild relatives have traditionally been used as sources of useful traits (e.g., wheat, tomato) continue to be most likely to include new genes from their wild relatives. CWR are continually gaining in importance and prevalence, but, we argue, their contributions to the development of new cultivars remain less than might have been expected given improved procedures for intercrossing species from different gene pools, advances in molecular methods for managing backcrossing programes, increased numbers of wild species accessions in gene banks, and the substantial literature on beneficial traits associated with wild relatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Major thematic and geographical biases characterize the forest livelihoods literature. • Current forest-poverty research concentrates almost exclusively on economic and material dimensions. • We develop a conceptual framework for analyzing forests as pathways to prosperity. • Wider perspective is needed to account for diverse ways forests contribute to human well-being. The role of forests in supporting current consumption and helping people cope with seasonal, climatic, and other stressors is increasingly well understood. But can forests help rural households climb out of poverty? And can forests provide a pathway to prosperity that includes more widely shared economic benefits and improvements in other aspects of human well-being? This introduction to the Special Issue on "Forests as Pathways to Prosperity" reviews the literature on forest livelihoods in developing countries to synthesize evidence relating to these questions. We find that available research primarily examines poverty mitigation aspects of forests rather than the potential role of forest conservation, management, and use in alleviating poverty or promoting broader prosperity. To increase understanding of forest-livelihood relationships we propose a framework based on the concept of prosperity, which draws particular attention to human well-being beyond economic and material dimensions. We argue that explicitly taking a more expansive view can enable better accounting for the diverse ways forests contribute to human welfare, expand the constituency for forests, and inform policies to more sustainably manage forests within wider landscapes. Together, our review and the other articles in this volume advance these objectives by providing new analytical frameworks, empirical insights, and theoretical understanding to build knowledge on linkages between forests, poverty, and broader prosperity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This editorial reflects on the history of the conservation movement, the strong continuing influence of its colonial past, and the counter‐emergence of a more pluralistic and respectful worldview. Conservation Letters seeks to support and foster an ethical and inclusive discipline of conservation that discards elements of its colonial and racist history. This will involve broadening the disciplinary scope of "conservation" and paying greater attention to traditional ecological knowledge and nonwestern conservation approaches. We also see a particular need for theoretical advances that guide conservation practice by informing and connecting different kinds of expertise to understand social‐ecological interactions and their implications for both people and ecosystems. Conservation can and should play a vital role in securing the joint future of ecosystems and people, but it will only achieve its full potential if it retains its social license and stays relevant to emerging concerns and values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing magnitude and frequency of natural disasters in China, environmental issues are of major concern to governments and the general public. Using questionnaire surveys, we examined public perceptions of environmental problems resulting from economic development in the Min River Watershed, China. This study found that public awareness and understanding of environmental issues were high. Two major concerns identified were water pollution and flooding, primarily thought to be caused by the discharge of untreated waste directly into water bodies and the overlogging of natural forests, respectively. Results also point to a desire for enhanced public participation in watershed management. The dialogue between decision makers and the general public should be sufficiently flexible to enable community involvement. The cooperation of multiple stakeholders across spatial and political boundaries is needed for the successful watershed management in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cattle ranching in Brazil is a key driver of deforestation and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Brazilian government plans to reduce national GHG emissions by at least 36%, partly by reducing emissions in the livestock sector through strategies such as intensification, pasture improvement, and rotational grazing. In response, sustainability programs promoting these practices have begun operation. Though studies have previously investigated aspects of GHG emissions and sequestration in improved pastures, they have not linked improvements with programmatic interventions. We surveyed 40 cattle ranchers located in the Brazilian Amazon biome to investigate how GHG emissions differed between farms participating in livestock sustainability programs with intensified production and farms not participating in these programs. We found that participating farms produced 8.3 kg of CO 2 e/kg of carcass weight (CW) less than did non-participating farms, which represents 19% fewer emissions. Farms that had participated in a sustainability program for at least two years showed larger differences in emissions: 19.0 kg of CO 2 e/kg CW less for program farms compared with their counterparts, or 35.8% fewer emissions. Key drivers of the total CO 2 e/kg CW in all farms were enteric fermentation and manure management. This paper provides farm-level data supporting intensification as a possible strategy to reduce emissions per kilogram of beef produced, and suggests that future research efforts should focus on long-term impacts of intensification and expand metrics for success beyond GHG calculations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]