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River floodplains sustain irrigated agriculture worldwide. Despite generalised groundwater level falls, limited hard data are available to apportion groundwater sources in many irrigated regions. In this paper, we propose a workflow based on: hydrochemical analysis, water stable isotopes, radiocarbon contents and multivariate statistical analysis to facilitate the quantification of groundwater source attribution at regional scales. Irrigation water supply wells and groundwater monitoring wells sampled in the alluvial aquifer of the Condamine River (Queensland, Australia) are used to test this approach that can easily be implemented in catchments worldwide. The methodology identified four groundwater sources: 1) river/flood water; 2) modified river/flood water; 3) groundwater recharged through regional volcanic materials and 4) groundwater recharged predominantly through sands and/or sandstone materials. The first two sources are characterised by fresh water, dominant sodium bicarbonate chemistry, short residence time and depleted water stable isotope signatures. Groundwater sources 3 and 4 are characterised by saline groundwater, sodium chloride chemistries, enriched water stable isotopes and very low radiocarbon contents, inferred to correspond to long residence times. The majority of wells assessed are dominated by flood water recharge, linked to decadal >300 mm rainfall events and associated flooding in the region. The approach presented here provides a groundwater source fingerprint, reinforcing the importance of floodwater recharge in the regional water budgets. This apportioning of groundwater sources will allow irrigators, modelers and managers to assess the long-term sustainability of groundwater use in alluvial catchments.

Coal seam gas (CSG) exploration and production has expanded adjacent to the Lower Namoi Alluvium (LNA) since 2002, with tenements to Santos Limited in and around the Pilliga State Forest (Santos Limited 2015). The coal seams being targeted for production are the Bohena, Narrabri and Hokissons seams. CSG production generally requires the jointextraction of very large quantities of groundwater and thus there is significant community concern regarding the potential impacts of depressurisation and induced fluid and gas migration on both groundwater quality and quantity.The LNA has supplied groundwater for irrigated agriculture since the 1960s. These groundwater extractions have lowered the water table, changed groundwater flow paths and reduced the weight of water locally overlying the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). To rebalance extractions with natural aquifer recharge processes, there has been a staged reduction in groundwater withdrawals (commencing in 2006) with the aim of achieving sustainablegroundwater use (Lower Namoi Groundwater 2008).Future groundwater abstraction to support both irrigated agriculture and co-produced groundwater extractions associated with CSG production could potentially affect the sustainability of the groundwater resources in the LNA. Additionally, climate variability and change can impact the sustainability of groundwater resources in the LNA. There is also a societal desire to maintain and improve the health of groundwater dependent ecosystems.Analysing the groundwater chemistry provides insights on the impacts of past groundwater extractions, improves our understanding of recharge processes, and enables us to evaluate the conceptual hydrogeological models being used to guide the Water Sharing Plan and assessthe impacts of CSG production.The main objectives of this project are to: Collate baseline geochemical and, isotopic data of the groundwater, to providean assessment of the age of the groundwater; Measure the concentration of the metha

The Nogoa River sub-catchment, Queensland, Australia, supports a multimillion-dollar agricultural sector. For thelast decade, efforts have been made to monitor river nitrate loads (Fitzroy partnership for River Health, 2017),which may affect sensitive ecosystems downstream, such as the World Heritage-listed Great Barrier Reef (Brodieet al. 2012). Research into nitrous oxide, which arises from both the oxidation of ammonium fertilisers and/orreduction of subsequent nitrate, is also very important due to its increasing impact on the atmosphere. An integratedapproach that considers the interactions between atmosphere, river water and groundwater nitrogen compounds isthus integral to closing the nitrogen cycle in the region.Nitrogen fertiliser contributions to greenhouse gas emissions, riverine environments and aquifers remain uncertainfor several reasons: (1) ad-hoc river water sampling frequency and infrequent shallow groundwater sampling; (2)a lack of isotopic evidence for attributing sources and highlighting attenuation processes; (3) poor understandingof groundwater recharge pathways, residence times, and contributions to the Nogoa River; and (4) a lack ofquantification of river water and groundwater nitrous oxide concentrations and emissions.In this poster, we present hydro-geochemical data (major ions, N2O-N, 2H-H2O and 18O-H2O, 15N-NO 3and 18O-NO 3 , and natural radioactive tracers) from seven sites along the Nogoa River that were repeatedlysampled over a 1-year period, and from 24 shallow groundwater bores sampled in October 2018. A comparisonwith historical major ion groundwater data reveals that nitrate concentrations have increased due to continuedfertiliser input over the past 20 years, reaching up to 25 mg L 1 NO 3 -N. Dual nitrate isotopes ( 15N and 18O) reveal that denitrification occurs in both the shallow groundwater and Nogoa River samples, and suggesta predominant fertiliser source of nitrate. The data will be placed in the wider context of recharge

Lanthanides, generally named Rare Earth Elements (REE), are part of the internal transition metals forming a group of 15 elements with very similar chemical characteristics and physical properties. REEs and Yttrium (named REY) are widely used to understand geochemical processes. The increasing use of REYs in technology as well as their presence as a by-product in some fertilizers has opened new pathways for these metals to enter the water cycle, thus making REYs tracers of anthropogenic activity.In this study we investigate the concentration and distribution of REYs in two predominatly agricultural catchments of Eastern Australia: the Namoi River with a 43,000 km2 catchment, which forms part of the headwaters of the Murray- Darling Basin; and the Nogoa River with a 27,600 km2 catchment, which forms part of the Fitzroy River catchment, the largest in eastern Australia flowing into the Great Barrier Reef.Bi-monthly sampling during 18 months was conducted at seven selected sites along both rivers. The [REY] in water samples were analyzed by automated chelation pre-concentration (SeaFast, ESI), followed by ICP-MS. Samples were automatically loaded onto a loop and injected to an iminodiacetate column that chelates REY allowing matrix Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+ and, more importantly, Ba2+ ions to be rinsed out. The pre-concentration process allowed a ~20-fold increase in concentration. Results are compared to those obtained from commonly used fertilizers in the region. REY trends suggest a link to the fertilizers used in both catchments. No regional variations were apparent, possibly due to the prevailing dry conditions during the sampling period. Stream flow was controled by dam releases in the upper ridges for both catchments.

The oxygen isotope composition of speleothems is a widely used proxy for past climate change. Robust use of this proxy depends on understanding the relationship between precipitation and cave drip water δ18O. Here, we present the first global analysis, based on data from 163 drip sites, from 39 caves on five continents, showing that drip water δ18O is most similar to the amount-weighted precipitation δ18O where mean annual temperature (MAT) is < 10 °C. By contrast, for seasonal climates with MAT > 10 °C and < 16 °C, drip water δ18O records the recharge-weighted δ18O. This implies that the δ18O of speleothems (formed in near isotopic equilibrium) are most likely to directly reflect meteoric precipitation in cool climates only. In warmer and drier environments, speleothems will have a seasonal bias toward the precipitation δ18O of recharge periods and, in some cases, the extent of evaporative fractionation of stored karst water.

The lower Namoi alluvial aquifer (LNAA) in northwest Australia supports a multibillion-dollar agricultural sector focused around cotton growing established in the 1960s. Investigations into N2O emissions from the LNAA and possible perturbations from agriculture and natural processes are lacking. To determine groundwater N2O concen- trations and production processes in the LNAA, we sampled groundwater from 23 bores (8.4 – 33.6 m depth) in the lower Namoi catchment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to quantify N2O in groundwater at a catchment scale in Australia.Dissolved N2O-N concentrations ranged from 1.2 – 11.9 μg L−1, and NO3-N concentrations ranged from <0.02 – 5.1 mg L−1. N2O-N and NO3-N concentrations were weakly, yet positively, correlated (r2 = 0.2, p = 0.01). The highest concentrations measured in groundwater were beneath intensely cropped farms (N2O-N ranging from 1.9 – 11.9 μg L−1; and NO3-N ranging from 1.3 – 5.1 mg L−1). An exception to this occurred along a groundwater transect within cropped farmland, where both N2O-N and NO3-N concentrations were lower (1.2 – 2.0 μg L−1and 0.02 – 0.3 mg L−1, respectively). Spatially, this groundwater transect is located where the Great Artesian Basin (GAB), the largest artesian basin in the world, discharges into the LNAA (Iverach et al. 2017). Here, GAB input causes the groundwater to have low dissolved oxygen (0.2 – 0.4 mg L−1) and warmer temperatures (23 – 26 oC), which promotes the reduction of NO−3 to gaseous N2O and N2via denitrification.Mean emission factors for indirect N2O emissions (EF5g; N2O-N / NO3-N) from groundwater bores located on- farm (EF5g = 0.2%) were lower than IPCC default EF5g (EF5g = 0.25%), while estimates from riparian zone groundwater (EF5g = 3.0%) were higher. Importantly, EF5g values from groundwater affected by GAB discharge (EF5g = 3.4%) were also significantly greater than the IPCC default EF5g , despite being located beneath intensely cropped farmland and having l

Many gigalitres of groundwater have been extracted from the Condamine River Alluvial Aquifer (CRAA) since the 1960s. These groundwater withdrawals have stressed the system and locally altered the groundwater flow paths. Isotopes can provide powerful insights into recharge pathways, flow direction, and the sustainability of groundwater withdrawals from alluvial aquifers. To address some of the regional groundwater concerns we must characterise alluvial groundwater residence time.A total of 31 groundwater samples were collected from privately owned irrigation bores and Qld-DNRM government monitoring bores in the region between Condamine Plains and Dalby. Parameters analysed included: 3H, 14CDIC, 222Rn, 87Sr/86Sr, δ13CDIC, water δ2H and δ18O, sulfate δ34S and δ18O as well major, trace and REE elements.Distance from primary recharge areas (rivers) provides the main control on groundwater residence time in the CRAA. This is supported by the following observations:1) Groundwater between the Condamine River and its northern branch has low TDS (~400 mg/L), is Na-HCO3-type and has detectable 3H, indicating a proportion of modern recharge (<70 years);2) Groundwater east of the northern branch has higher TDS (~700 mg/L) and is Na-HCO3- -type with increasing eastern inputs. No 3H is detected and 14C shows sub-modern groundwater (~500 years);3) Groundwater along the eastern and western boundaries of the alluvium or samples retrieved from the Walloon Coal Measures (WCM) have high TDS (1,250-19,770 mg/L) and are Na-Cl-type. Residence times in the upper WCM increase along the flow path to the west from modern to 32,000 years on the western side.Groundwater residence time distributions provide a visualisation of recharge processes and delineate areas where groundwater withdrawals are less sustainable within the CRAA.

The Narrabri and Gunnedah Formations, used to describe the valley-filling sedimentary sequences in portions of the Murray-Darling Basin, have never been formally defined. The hydrogeological evidence for naming these formations is reviewed in the context of modern sedimentary models. Are we using the right architectural model?Hundreds of lithological logs from the Murrumbidgee, Namoi, and Gwydir catchments are used to examine the evolution of each alluvial aquifer. For each depth interval, the catchment-wide proportions of coarse (gravel, sand) and fine (silt, clay) sediments is determined. Sediment size distributions are then examined in the context of past climates and the conceptual inland fluvial model for distributive fluvial systems. Vertical hydraulic connectivity is examined using new hydrogeochemical data and nested groundwater hydrograph sets.All systems show the core features of aggradational distributive fluvial systems. The valley-filling sequences for all catchments examined transitioned from high energy wet environments at depth, dominated by sand and gravel deposits, through to the modern-day low-energy silt and clay dominated depositional environments. Gravel and sand deposits dominate in the proximal portion of the catchment, and low energy silt and clay deposits dominate in the distal portions. The apparent existence of the Narrabri and Gunnedah Formations is due to changing sediment grain size proportion and channel fill sand connectivity. Both the facies and hydrograph analyses show that semi-confining layers are only local. Extensive hydrogeochemical data from the Namoi catchment show continuity of mixing between basement and surface inflows.All catchments have many sedimentary architectural features consistent with the distributive fluvial system model, and reflect changing climate throughout the Neogene and Quaternary. Use of the Narrabri and Gunnedah Formation nomenclature, which has been incorporated into the National Aquifer Framework, is

Methane concentration in caves is commonly much lower than the external atmosphere, yet the cave CH4 depletion causal mechanism is contested and dynamic links to external diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles unknown. Here, we report a continuous 3-year record of cave methane and other trace gases in Jenolan Caves, Australia which shows a seasonal cycle of extreme CH4 depletion, from ambient ∼1,775 ppb to near zero during summer and to ∼800 ppb in winter. Methanotrophic bacteria, some newly-discovered, rapidly consume methane on cave surfaces and in external karst soils with lifetimes in the cave of a few hours. Extreme bacterial selection due to the absence of alternate carbon sources for growth in the cave environment has resulted in an extremely high proportion 2-12% of methanotrophs in the total bacteria present. Unexpected seasonal bias in our cave CH4 depletion record is explained by a three-step process involving methanotrophy in aerobic karst soil above the cave, summer transport of soil-gas into the cave through epikarst, followed by further cave CH4 depletion. Disentangling cause and effect of cave gas variations by tracing sources and sinks has identified seasonal speleothem growth bias, with implied palaeo-climate record bias.

Speleothems (cave deposits), used for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions, are deposited from cave drip water. Differentiating climate and karst processes within a drip-water signal is fundamental for the correct identification of palaeoenvironmental proxies and ultimately their interpretation within speleothem records. We investigate the potential use of trace element and stable oxygen-isotope (δ18O) variations in cave drip water as palaeorainfall proxies in an Australian alpine karst site. This paper presents the first extensive hydrochemical and δ18O dataset from Harrie Wood Cave, in the Snowy Mountains, south-eastern (SE) Australia. Using a 7-year long rainfall δ18O and drip-water Ca, Cl, Mg/Ca, Srg/gCa and δ18O datasets from three drip sites, we determined that the processes of mixing, dilution, flow path change, carbonate mineral dissolution and prior calcite precipitation (PCP) accounted for the observed variations in the drip-water geochemical composition. We identify that the three monitored drip sites are fed by fracture flow from a well-mixed epikarst storage reservoir, supplied by variable concentrations of dissolved ions from soil and bedrock dissolution. We constrained the influence of multiple processes and controls on drip-water composition in a region dominated by El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During the El Niño and dry periods, enhanced PCP, a flow path change and dissolution due to increased soil CO2 production occurred in response to warmer than average temperatures in contrast to the La Niña phase, where dilution dominated and reduced PCP were observed. We present a conceptual model, illustrating the key processes impacting the drip-water chemistry. We identified a robust relationship between ENSO and drip-water trace element concentrations and propose that variations in speleothem Mg/Ca and Srg/Ca ratios may be interpreted to reflect palaeorainfall conditions. These findings inform palaeorainfall reconstruction from speleothems regionall

The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) is a synthesis of quality-controlled fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) values for the global surface oceans and coastal seas with regular updates. Version 3 of SOCAT has 14.7 million fCO2 values from 3646 data sets covering the years 1957 to 2014. This latest version has an additional 4.6 million fCO2 values relative to version 2 and extends the record from 2011 to 2014. Version 3 also significantly increases the data availability for 2005 to 2013. SOCAT has an average of approximately 1.2 million surface water fCO2 values per year for the years 2006 to 2012. Quality and documentation of the data has improved. A new feature is the data set quality control (QC) flag of E for data from alternative sensors and platforms. The accuracy of surface water fCO2 has been defined for all data set QC flags. Automated range checking has been carried out for all data sets during their upload into SOCAT. The upgrade of the interactive Data Set Viewer (previously known as the Cruise Data Viewer) allows better interrogation of the SOCAT data collection and rapid creation of high-quality figures for scientific presentations. Automated data upload has been launched for version 4 and will enable more frequent SOCAT releases in the future. High-profile scientific applications of SOCAT include quantification of the ocean sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide and its long-term variation, detection of ocean acidification, as well as evaluation of coupled-climate and ocean-only biogeochemical models. Users of SOCAT data products are urged to acknowledge the contribution of data providers, as stated in the SOCAT Fair Data Use Statement. This ESSD (Earth System Science Data) "living data" publication documents the methods and data sets used for the assembly of this new version of the SOCAT data collection and compares these with those used for ea

High-frequency, spatially-dense discharge monitoring was conducted over fifteen months to characterise unsaturated zone flow at Harrie Wood Cave (HWC), in the Snowy Mountains, Yarrangobilly (SE Australia). The cave was formed in the Late Silurian Yarrangobilly Limestone, a fractured rock associated with very low primary porosity due to past diagenesis. Over our monitoring period we simultaneously measured rainfall, soil moisture saturation and drip discharge rate at fourteen sites to characterise infiltration-discharge relationships. All drip discharge sites exhibited non-Gaussian distributions, indicating long periods where low discharge predominates, punctuated by short infrequent periods of high discharge. However, there was significant variability in discharge between sites and consequently no spatial correlation in the cave. We investigated the depth-discharge relationship at HWC and found a moderate relationship between depth and drip discharge lag (response) times to soil moisture content, but only weak relationships between depth and mean and maximum discharge. This highlights that the karst architecture plays an important role in controlling drip discharge dynamics. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Agglomerative Hierarchal Clustering (AHC) were used to classify similar drip types, revealing five unique drip regimes. Two-phase flow and non-linear response to recharge behaviour were observed, suggesting secondary porosity is controlling unsaturated zone flow in mature limestone environments with low primary porosity. Using the data presented here, the first coupled conceptual and box hydrological flow model was developed. This study highlights the heterogeneous nature of hydrological flow in karst and the need to understand unsaturated zone hydrology at the individual drip discharge level, to inform speleothem studies for high-resolution paleoclimate reconstruction.

The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT), an activity of the international marine carbon research community, provides access to synthesis and gridded fCO(2) (fugacity of carbon dioxide) products for the surface oceans. Version 2 of SOCAT is an update of the previous release (version 1) with more data (increased from 6.3 million to 10.1 million surface water fCO(2) values) and extended data coverage (from 1968-2007 to 1968-2011). The quality control criteria, while identical in both versions, have been applied more strictly in version 2 than in version 1. The SOCAT website (http://www.socat.info/) has links to quality control comments, metadata, individual data set files, and synthesis and gridded data products. Interactive online tools allow visitors to explore the richness of the data. Applications of SOCAT include process studies, quantification of the ocean carbon sink and its spatial, seasonal, year-to-year and longer-term variation, as well as initialisation or validation of ocean carbon models and coupled climate-carbon models.

The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT, www.socat.info) and the Global Data Analysis Project version 2 (GLODAP2) are synthesis activities by the international marine carbon community. SOCAT version 2 brings together 10.1 million, quality-controlled, surface water fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) values from 1968 to 2011 for the global oceans and coastal seas (Fig. 1). GLODAP2, to be made public in autumn 2014, has full depth inorganic carbon parameters, nutrients, oxygen, transient tracers and ancillary parameters from 775 cruises globally from 1972 to 2013 (Fig. 2). It puts GLODAP, CARINA and PACIFICA in a coherent framework, while adding 170 new cruises.

The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT), an activity of the international marine carbon research community, provides access to synthesis and gridded fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) products for the surface oceans. Version 2 of SOCAT is an update of the previous release (version 1) with more data (increased from 6.3 million to 10.1 million surface water fCO2 values) and extended data coverage (from 1968–2007 to 1968–2011). The quality control criteria, while identical in both versions, have been applied more strictly in version 2 than in version 1. The SOCAT website has links to quality control comments, metadata, individual data set files, and synthesis and gridded data products. Interactive online tools allow visitors to explore the richness of the data. Applications of SOCAT include process studies, quantification of the ocean carbon sink and its spatial, seasonal, year-to-year and longerterm variation, as well as initialisation or validation of ocean carbon models and coupled climate-carbon models.

BACKGROUND: To assess the risk of all nanomaterials (NMs) on a case-by-case basis is challenging in terms of financial, ethical and time resources. Instead a more intelligent approach to knowledge gain and risk assessment is required. METHODS: A framework of future research priorities was developed from the accorded opinion of experts covering all major stake holder groups (government, industry, academia, funders and NGOs). It recognises and stresses the major topics of physicochemical characterisation, exposure identification, hazard identification and modelling approaches as key components of the current and future risk assessment of NMs. RESULTS: The framework for future research has been developed from the opinions of over 80 stakeholders, that describes the research priorities for effective development of an intelligent testing strategy (ITS) to allow risk evaluation of NMs. In this context, an ITS is a process that allows the risks of NMs to be assessed accurately, effectively and efficiently, thereby reducing the need to test NMs on a case-by-case basis.For each of the major topics of physicochemical characterisation, exposure identification, hazard identification and modelling, key-priority research areas are described via a series of stepping stones, or hexagon diagrams structured into a time perspective. Importantly, this framework is flexible, allowing individual stakeholders to identify where their own activities and expertise are positioned within the prioritisation pathway and furthermore to identify how they can effectively contribute and structure their work accordingly. In other words, the prioritisation hexagon diagrams provide a tool that individual stakeholders can adapt to meet their own particular needs and to deliver an ITS for NMs risk assessment. Such an approach would, over time, reduce the need for testing by increasing the reliability and sophistication of in silico approaches.The manuscript includes an appra

A well documented, publicly available, global data set of surface ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) parameters has been called for by international groups for nearly two decades. The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) project was initiated by the international marine carbon science community in 2007 with the aim of providing a comprehensive, publicly available, regularly updated, global data set of marine surface CO2, which had been subject to quality control (QC). Many additional CO2 data, not yet made public via the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), were retrieved from data originators, public websites and other data centres. All data were put in a uniform format following a strict protocol. Quality control was carried out according to clearly defined criteria. Regional specialists performed the quality control, using state-of-the-art web-based tools, specially developed for accomplishing this global team effort. SOCAT version 1.5 was made public in September 2011 and holds 6.3 million quality controlled surface CO2 data points from the global oceans and coastal seas, spanning four decades (1968–2007). Three types of data products are available: individual cruise files, a merged complete data set and gridded products. With the rapid expansion of marine CO2 data collection and the importance of quantifying net global oceanic CO2 uptake and its changes, sustained data synthesis and data access are priorities

A well documented, publicly available, global data set for surface ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) parameters has been called for by international groups for nearly two decades. The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) project was initiated by the international marine carbon science community in 2007 with the aim of providing a comprehensive, publicly available, regularly updated, global data set of marine surface CO2, which had been subject to quality control (QC). SOCAT version 1.5 was made public in September 2011 and holds 6.3 million quality controlled surface CO2 data from the global oceans and coastal seas, spanning four decades (1968–2007). The SOCAT gridded data is the second data product to come from the SOCAT project. Recognizing that some groups may have trouble working with millions of measurements, the SOCAT gridded product was generated to provide a robust regularly spaced fCO2 product with minimal spatial and temporal interpolation which should be easier to work with for many applications. Gridded SOCAT is rich with information that has not been fully explored yet, but also contains biases and limitations that the user needs to recognize and address.

The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) is an effort by the international marine carbon research community. It aims to improve access to carbon dioxide measurements in the surface oceans by regular releases of quality controlled and fully documented synthesis and gridded fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) products. SOCAT version 2 presented here extends the data set for the global oceans and coastal seas by four years and has 10.1 million surface water fCO2 values from 2660 cruises between 1968 and 2011. The procedures for creating version 2 have been comparable to those for version 1. The SOCAT website (http://www.socat.info/) provides access to the individual cruise data files, as well as to the synthesis and gridded data products. Interactive online tools allow visitors to explore the richness of the data. Scientific users can also retrieve the data as downloadable files or via Ocean Data View. Version 2 enables carbon specialists to expand their studies until 2011. Applications of SOCAT include process studies, quantification of the ocean carbon sink and its spatial, seasonal, year-to-year and longer-term variation, as well as initialisation or validation of ocean carbon models and coupled-climate carbon models.

As a response to public demand for a well documented, quality controlled, publically available, global surface ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) data set, the international marine carbon science community developed the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT). The first SOCAT product is a collection of 6.3 million quality controlled surface CO2 data from the global oceans and coastal seas, spanning four decades (1968–2007). The SOCAT gridded data presented here is the second data product to come from the SOCAT project. Recognizing that some groups may have trouble working with millions of measurements, the SOCAT gridded product was generated to provide a robust, regularly spaced CO2 fugacity (fCO2) product with minimal spatial and temporal interpolation, which should be easier to work with for many applications. Gridded SOCAT is rich with information that has not been fully explored yet (e.g., regional differences in the seasonal cycles), but also contains biases and limitations that the user needs to recognize and address (e.g., local influences on values in some coastal regions).