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Sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) is the most economically important member of the Hard Maple species complex, a group of related species that occupy a range between Canada and Mexico, which are adapted to distinct ecological niches. Sugar maple has been identified as vulnerable to rapid climate change, and sustainable solutions are needed to support its role in the production of maple sugar, as well as timber and nursery production in the northeastern United States. Genetic relationships among sugar maple and its allies are largely unknown. In the current study, genetic relationships of 278 individuals from six hard maple species were assessed using 17 multi-allelic microsatellite (SSR) loci. Genetic variance was partitioned into separate components for variation within and among populations and within and among species. Most of the divergence among populations (FPT = 0.263) reflected interspecific divergence (FST = 0.169), but provenances within species also differed at nontrivial scales (FPS = 0.113). Estimation and testing of paired interprovenance divergence showed that all population pairs were statistically divergent. Principal coordinates analysis indicated that the pattern of radiation observed among these taxa is broadly compatible with geography.

The work presented here focuses on the, incorporation of an engineered polysaccharide polymer, α-1,3-glucan, derived from the enzymatic polymerization of sucrose, as a performance-enhancing additive for commercial, latex-based wood adhesives used in wood bonding applications. Adhesive performance was measured on hard maple (Acer saccharum) using ASTM Standard Method D-905. Dynamic mechanical analysis and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy were the characterization techniques used to assess the properties of room-temperature–cured adhesive films. Significant increases in shear stress were observed for these formulated latex adhesives containing the polysaccharide polymer.

Maple and poplar are common names of species that grow in the eastern United States. Physical and mechanical properties were evaluated from small clear wood specimens of hard maple (Acer saccharum) and yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). Specific gravity, static bending strength and modulus of elasticity, compression parallel and perpendicular to grain, and Janka hardness were tested. The experiments were carried out on defect-free specimens extracted from boards supplied by members of the Staircase Manufacturers Association. The material was donated by companies located in the eastern United States. On the basis of the findings, it can be stated that mechanical properties for maple and yellow poplar have not changed substantially because the average values remain in a range that is very close to the values published in previous studies.

Increasing hardwood growing stock volume in the eastern United States from the 1950s to the 1990s was led by increases in poletimber volume. In the current century, volumetric growth has become concentrated in larger trees at least 17 in. dbh (≥17 in.). In the Central Hardwood region, the volume of such trees now exceeds poletimber volume by 75%. In this paper, we examine proportional and cubic volume increases of trees ≥17 in. across major species groups in the Central Hardwood region. In 2012, at least 40% of the volume of select white and red oaks, other red oaks, and yellow-poplar was in trees ≥17 in. While hard maple and hickory had less than 25% of their volume in this size class. In the short run, these changes will benefit hardwood industries because larger trees are more economical to harvest and process. In the long run, there could be challenges as larger-diameter trees are harvested or die without a similar timber base emerging in their absence.

The potentials for removal of beef bacterial microflora from unscored polyethylene and hardwood cutting boards were compared. Ground beef was placed for 0 to 90 min onto cutting boards at room temperature and then removed ; the surfaces were swabbed and the bacteria were enumerated. The boards were cleaned with various cleaning agents and then analyzed for bacterial removal. In addition, aqueous extracts from eight hardwoods were incubated with Escherichia coli O157 :H7 for 0 to 30 h at 37°C to determine their inhibitory potential. Differences between the bacterial levels on wooden and plastic boards were not significant regardless of contact time. Washing with any cleaner, including water, removed most bacteria from either type of board. White ash extracts reduced E. coli O157 :H7 levels to undetectable within 24 h ; black cherry and red oak exhibited low inhibitory activity. Slight growth was observed in extracts from all other hardwoods, including hard maple, suggesting that aqueous extractable agents that are active against E. coli O157 :H7 are not generally present in hardwoods. This study demonstrates the need to control cutting board sanitation regardless of composition.

Wood packing materials (WPMs) utilized by the US Department of Defense (DOD) can be constructed with a diversity of wood species depending on end use. To extend service life, these materials are treated with preservatives to protect against insects and decay fungi. Recent issues have prompted the need to include moldicide additives with these treatments. The goal of this study was to evaluate mold susceptibility across a diversity of hardwood species with the purpose of identifying representative hardwood species that would be useful in differentiating efficacy of moldicide treatments in future studies. Conditioned hardwood lumber representing groups of species listed in DOD specifications were cut to obtain 7 × 20 × 70 mm specimens. The specimens were subjected to simulated rainfall to achieve the type of wetting that might occur in service, inoculated with mold spores, placed above moist paper in Petri dishes, and given visual ratings for mold growth at 2-week intervals. The results indicate that hickory, red oak sapwood, hard maple, white ash and white oak sapwood are all highly susceptible to mold growth. Mold growth was less consistent on aspen, cottonwood, and soft maple, and varied greatly between sapwood and heartwood for yellow poplar. Hickory, hard maple and white ash may be best suited for future WPM moldicide testing because of their availability and consistent mold susceptibility.

This study investigated the phosphorus adsorption behaviors of pristine and MgO modified biochars produced from woody biomass precursors (having different anatomical characteristics and similar specific gravities) and their MgCl2 impregnated counterparts. The biomass precursors were Longleaf pine wood shavings, Red Oak and Hard Maple sawdusts. The microstructural, physico-chemical, textural, and phosphorus adsorption characteristics of the pristine and MgO modified biochars were examined. The percent yields (45.01 – 56.35%) of the MgO modified biochars were higher than the percent yields (29.29 – 30.08%) of the pristine biochars, mainly due to the presence of added MgO. The pH of all the biochars showed that they were alkaline in nature. The cation exchange capacities of the pristine and MgO modified biochars were 1.62 – 3.20 cmol/kg and 84.81 – 111.12 cmol/kg, respectively. The specific surface areas of the pristine and MgO modified biochars were 0.26 - 8.82 m2/g and 22.02 - 28.07 m2/g, respectively. The phosphorus adsorption capacities of the pristine and MgO modified biochars were 1.88 – 2.78 mg/g and 28.20 – 29.22 mg/g, respectively. The pristine hardwood derived biochars (Hard Maple and Red Oak) showed better phosphorous adsorption capacities than the pristine softwood derived biochar (Longleaf Pine), and the MgO modified biochars showed 11 times higher phosphorus adsorption capacities than the pristine biochars.

We will present the results of several experiments used to characterize the properties and performance of multiple baseball bats composed of four different species of wood including soft maple, hard maple, birch, and ash. Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy was used in an effort to obtain the complete orthotropic tensor of the different wood species. In addition, ultrasonic pulse-echo measurements and dynamic impulse time-of-flight measurements were performed to obtain longitudinal sound speeds, which in combination with bat geometry, mass, and density enabled the determination of the longitudinal Young’s moduli. Bat performance was then experimentally determined via a newly developed non-destructive impact method. The physical acoustic parameters that most significantly correlated with optimum bat performance will also be presented.

The possibility of the use of thermally modified European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in necks of electric bass guitars for the substitution of Hard maple (Acer saccharum) has been studied. The heat treatments were performed at relatively mild treatment temperatures of 140 and 160 °C for 12 h. The acoustic properties were determined by means of experimental modal analysis (EMA) and the mechanical properties by means of static and impact bending tests. The results show that both the acoustic and mechanical, static properties of beech improve significantly owing to thermal modification, being similar or better compared to Hard maple. The impact bending strengths decrease owing to thermal modification. Additional tests on complete necks of electric bass guitars by means of EMA and plucking tests on total instruments show that thermally treated beech at mild temperatures can substitute Hard maple for the use as neck material in electric bass guitars.

The bats used in Major League Baseball (MLB) are required to be turned from a single piece of wood. Northern white ash had been the wood of choice until the introduction of hard maple in the late 1990s. Since the introduction of maple to the game, there was a perceived increase in the rate of bats to exhibit multiple piece failures (MPF)—both ash and maple. These failures introduced a new aspect to the game that can be a significant factor during play, i.e. pieces of bats going into the field of play, thereby distracting fielders while reacting to the batted ball. Observations of bat breakage in the field and lab testing of bats in controlled conditions have shown the bat durability is a function of wood quality and bat profile. Wood quality is described by the density and the slope of grain of the wood used in the bat. The density and the slope of grain determine the effective strength of the wood. The bat profile is described by the variation in the diameter of the bat along its length. The wood densities and bat profiles which are preferred by players, are typically in direct contradiction with what makes for a durable bat. In this paper, the finite element method is used to develop calibrated models of the breaking of wood bats in controlled lab conditions. The modeling approach is then used to explore how bat profile influences bat durability and what potential changes can be made in bat profile to satisfy player desires while increasing bat durability.

Solid wood railway ties have widely been used in the railway system in North America. With decreasing average log diameter and quality, laminated wood railway ties have been developed but used on a very limited scale due to the added cost for adhesive and labour. With significant technological advances made by the wood adhesive industry recently, it is considered timely to investigate the feasibility of fabricating laminated wood railway ties using the new structural adhesives. This study was aimed at developing laminated railway ties using low grade hardwoods to meet the North American performance specifications. A two-component polyurethane structural adhesive was used to bond hard maple (mainly) and yellow birch (limited) lumber of No. 3B Common grade to manufacture 16 ties following four fabricating procedures. The modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) of laminated wood ties were evaluated. The key findings were (1) the average MOR of the ties of type A-2 (i.e., laminating first followed by creosote treatment) met the AREMA specifications, however, the average MOE was 3% lower than the required value; and (2) both MOE and MOR of the ties of type A-3 (i.e., CCA treatment first followed by laminating) satisfied the specifications. It is feasible to fabricate laminated wood ties using low grade (No. 3B Common) hardwoods and a proper structural adhesive.

The withdrawal strength of a bolt-nut connector made from wood-based material was evaluated. The thread strength of the wooden bolt-nut connector was tested to select various parameters of the connector and the type of wood material; the wood materials tested were hard maple, white oak, ebony, glue-laminated bamboo, and densified Japanese cedar. A plane model of wooden threads with various thread angles was also evaluated. The results showed that the maximum failure load of the thread increased with increasing bolt density and connection area, which was calculated from the diameter of the bolt and the thickness of the nut. The withdrawal resistance after reaching the maximum load underwent a graded decrease because the bolt threads were broken one by one. In addition, the thread strength depended on the thread angle. In the model with a thread angle of 90°, compressive deformation in the transverse direction occurred prior to shear deformation along the root of the threads; the model with this thread angle thus had higher strength than those with other angles.

In this article, we report on the effect of internal log defect scanning on the gain in lumber value recovery for five hardwood species, consisting of black cherry, hard maple, yellow poplar, red oak, and white oak logs. A total of 29 logs, 6 logs per species and 2 logs each for log Grades 1, 2, and 3, were scanned with a medical X-ray computed tomography scanner to acquire their cross-sectional images. The one exception being for red oak logs, for which we scanned two Grade 1 logs, one Grade 2 log, and two Grade 3 logs. These logs were then sawn in the sawmill to determine the actual value recovered from each log. Virtual logs constructed with the scanning images of these logs were then sawn on the computer using the TOPSAW software. Based on simple live sawing simulations, overall the average value gain for all species and grades was 46%, while the gains for black cherry, hard maple, yellow poplar, red oak, and white oak were 42, 33, 83, 24, and 60 percent, respectively. The average gains for Grades 1, ...

Between 1963 and 2005 hardwood lumber production in the eastern United States increased by more than 50%. Production more than doubled in the northeastern and north central regions while increasing by less than 25% in the southeastern and south central regions. Increased lumber production in the northern regions was facilitated by an expanding sawtimber inventory, relative high volumes of select oak species and hard maple, an expanding kitchen cabinet industry, increased exports, and increased lumber demand by the pallet industry. Hardwood lumber production in the south central region was correlated with hardwood flooring production. When flooring production declined between 1963 and 1982, south central lumber production declined. After 1982 flooring production increased and hardwood lumber production in the south central region followed. By contrast, lumber production in the southeastern region has been tied to the fortunes of the wood and upholstered furniture industries. As furniture imports increased, the demand for lumber by these industries first stagnated and then declined. As a result, lumber production in this region declined between 1982 and 2005. Today, much of the commodity product portions of hardwood-demanding industries are facing international competition. By contrast, a driver of growth in hardwood lumber demand seems to be smaller manufacturers producing custom and semicustom products. These new industries tend to purchase higher-quality lumber but can use a variety of species. Therefore, states or regions with high volumes of timber and a broad composition of species have the greatest potential for future growth in hardwood lumber production.

Theoretical concepts pertaining to the marginal cost (MC) of the structural diversity of a forest stand are developed. A matrix growth model is estimated for mixed uneven-aged forest stands of hard maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) from southern Ontario. The estimated growth model is used to derive the MC equations for the Shannon and the Simpson indices of total structural diversity (TSD), species diversity (SD), and tree-size diversity (TD). The effects of exclusion and inclusion of the opportunity cost (OC) on the MC of the TSD are compared. The contributions of SD and TD to the MC of the TSD are disaggregated. The MCs of TSD, SD, and TD for the Shannon and the Simpson indices are iso-elastic. The elasticity of the MC of the TSD for the inclusion of OC is greater than the elasticity of MC of the TSD for the exclusion of OC. The elasticities of MC of TSD, SD, and TD for the Shannon index are greater than the elasticities of MC of TSD, SD, and TD, respectively, for the Simpson index. The elasticities of MC of SD are smaller than the elasticities of MC of TD, for both indices. However, these results are specific to the hard maple forests of southern Ontario and cannot be generalized. Some general features of MC equations of structural diversity are discussed.

A computer vision-based lumber production planning system (CVLPPS) is described. Computer axial tomography (CT or CAT) images of hardwood logs are analyzed for identification and classification of internal log defects. Individual CT image slices are analyzed for detection of 2D defects which are correlated across CT image slices in order to establish 3D support and identify true 3D defects. CVLPPS is capable of 3D reconstruction and rendering of the log and its internal defects from the individual CT image slices. It is also capable of simulation and rendering of key machining operations such as sawing and veneering on the 3D reconstructions of the logs. From the 3D reconstruction of the log and knowledge of its internal defects, CVLPPS can formulate sawing strategies to optimize the yield and grade of the resulting lumber. A prototype CVLPPS was developed and tested on CT images of hardwood logs from White Ash, Hard Maple, Red Oak and Black Walnut. Experimental results showed that CVLPPS could identify and localize a large majority of the internal log defects and thereby result in a 23–63% gain in value yield recovery when compared to a lumber processing strategy that did not use internal log structure information. Issues pertaining to the deployment of CVLPPS in a real-time lumber production environment are discussed. It is shown that the various components of CVLPPS are amenable to parallel and distributed computing, thus making a real-time implementation of CVLPPS practically feasible. CVLPPS could also be used as a decision aid for lumber production planning and an interactive training tool for novice sawyers and machinists.

The eastern hardwood resource contains numerous species that differ in grain, color, texture, and workability. Because the value of hardwoods is derived from appearance, these variations in physical attributes can cause the price for identical grades of hardwood lumber to vary by as much as 600% between species. As a result, there is incentive for primary processors to harvest certain species more intensively than others, which could affect long-term forest composition. This article introduces the concept of relative utilization to augment the infrequently published annualized growth-to-drain ratio and examines the relative utilization of 13 eastern hardwood species on a national and regional basis. An analysis of relative utilization coefficients developed from primary and secondary data showed that black cherry, red oak, hard maple, and yellow-poplar were relatively overutilized, while the gums, hickory, and beech were underutilized. Relative utilization has varied by species over time due to changes in furniture styling and the ability of industry to substitute species. Shade-tolerant species such as hard and soft maple are regenerating faster than shade- intolerant species, resulting in increased long-term supply even if current sawtimber volumes are relatively overutilized. North. J. Appl. For. 18(2):37–41.

Portable sawmill owners quickly recognize the advantage to kiln drying lumber they produce. Having the ability to provide properly kiln-dried lumber opens new market opportunities and can increase profit margins. However, the construction and operation of a dry kiln must be economical and simple. A small dehumidification dry kiln constructed and tested in Princeton, WV indicated that costs can be much less than a package kiln, and electricity costs to run the kiln seem to be very reasonable. Th e kiln did a good job drying maple lumber.

Drying Hardwood Lumber focuses on common methods for drying lumber of different thickness, with minimal drying defects, for high quality applications. This manual also includes predrying treatments that, when part of an overall quality-oriented drying system, reduce defects and improve drying quality, especially of oak lumber. Special attention is given to drying white wood, such as hard maple and ash, without sticker shadow or other discoloration. Several special drying methods, such as solar drying, are described, and proper techniques for storing dried lumber are discussed. Suggestions are provided for ways to economize on drying costs by reducing drying time and energy demands when feasible. Each chapter is accompanied by a list of references. Some references are cited in the chapter; others are listed as additional sources of information.

Industrial roundwood production rose from 357 million cubic feet in 1992 to 378 million cubic feet in 1994. Pulpwood accounted for 65% of total roundwood production in Wisconsin--3.1million cords in 1994. Aspen constituted 37% of the roundwood cut for pulpwood. Saw-log production rose from 588 million board feet in 1992 to 645 million board feet in 1994. Principal saw-log species were red oak, aspen, hard maple, white oak, and red pine. Logging residue generated in 1994 was estimated to be 157 million cubic feet. Ninety-eight percent or more of each residue class (coarse, fine, bark) generated at Wisconsin primary mills was used.

The climatic conditions during container shipment of color sensitive veneer logs (hard maple and black cherry) were documented using a computerized data-logger.

Various nondestructive methods for determining the condition of wooden panel paintings have been investigated. Methods are being developed to detect voids, hidden cracks, and fine fractures that are often a source of premature failure in such objects. Computer analysis shows that cracks in wood promote severe stress concentrations which are aggravated by the mechanical constraints imposed on the wood by the construction of a panel painting.1 The panel’s structural condition needs to be mapped in a nondestructive fashion in order to predict how these objects will mechanically respond over time or in different environments. Decisions can then be made as to whether an object can be safely removed from storage, if it can withstand conservation treatment, if it can be continuously displayed, or if it can be safely shipped to special exhibitions. We have demonstrated the NDE capabilities of different techniques by examining standard panels of white oak (Quercus sp.), tulip poplar, hard maple (Acer sp.), true mahogany (Swietenia sp.), black cherry, and western fir (Abies sp.). The panels contain voids between 0.15 and 0.6 cm in diameter and cracks smaller than 0.02 cm. The techniques for investigation included x-ray radiography, xeroradiography, and ultrasonics. Results show that both x-ray radiography and xeroradiography techniques can easily find voids at least as small as 0.15 cm. Xeroradiography has benefits over x-ray radiography because its edge enhancement property enables flaws to be displayed prominently. At certain angles, cracks less than 0.02 cm were easily seen. The results of using these two techniques on a panel painting are discussed. Ultrasound techniques using an all-air coupled system and a hybrid air-coupled/dry-coupled system have shown promising preliminary results for finding voids and cracks.

Subjective aroma intensities were performed on smokes generated from cherry, chestnut, hard maple, white and red oak, apple, hickory and mes-quite woods. The smokes were separated into total, carbonyl, neutral, basic and phenolic fractions. A sensory panel rated the carbonyl fraction of all smokes, except mesquite, as having the strongest smoke intensity. The aroma of the basic fraction was next in intensity. In the case of mesquite, the phenolic fraction was the most intense. Contrary to the common belief that the phenolic fraction is the primary contributor to smoke aroma in wood smoke, this study showed the carbonyl fraction to be the primary contributor for most woods. Because of the potential health danger associated with smoke-associated phenolic compounds, this study demonstrated that it would be possible to reduce or eliminate the phenolic fraction in many smoke sources without losing smoke aroma intensity.

Northern white ash had been the wood of choice for Major League Baseball (MLB) bats until the introduction of hard maple in the late 1990 s. Since the introduction of maple to the game, there has been a perceived increase in the rate of bats to exhibit multi-piece failures (MPF)–both ash and maple. Lab and field data indicate that while a maple bat is as equally likely to crack as an ash bat, maple is three times more likely than ash to exhibit an MPF. In 2009 MLB implemented a number of additional regulations and inspection processes for the wood billets in an effort to reduce the MPF rate. In 2010, another regulation was added requiring that before any new wood species can be introduced to the game, it must it must obtain approval from MLB Baseball Operations. This paper will describe a proposed wood species certification protocol to quantify its durability relative to ash, where ash is being taken as the acceptable baseline for durability. A demonstration of the protocol is conducted using yellow birch with white ash as the baseline. Finite element models of bats made of these two wood species are used to explore the relationship between wood density and bat durability.

The value per M bf (thousand board feet) of the lumber sawed from Grade-3 logs, 8 to 11 inches in diameter, from thinnings was compared with that from a harvest of mature-stand cut. The species tested were red oak (Quercus rubra L.), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), and hard maple (Acer saccharum Marsh). The total lumber value for each species was greater for logs obtained from thinnings. The value per M bf of the lumber sawed from red oak and yellow-poplar logs from thinnings was significantly higher than that from mature stands.

We analyzed the manufacture of standard-size hardwood blanks from lumber on a relatively small scale by conventional processing. Requiring an investment of just over $200,000, the conventional mill can process 500 M bf (thousand board feet) of kiln-dried lumber annually. The study focused on the economics associated with manufacture of blanks from four species - northern red oak, black cherry, hard maple, and yellow-poplar. Assuming a tax rate of 46 percent, returns ranged from 31 percent for hard maple to 38 percent for yellow-poplar. Plots were developed relating raw material input cost to blank prices necessary to achieve specified levels of return. The blanks investment seems suited to someone wishing to enter the wood business on a small scale, to sawmill operators wishing to upgrade and expand their product offering, and to small furniture and cabinet manufacturers wanting more control of their raw material situation.

Our research for a book 1 began as an exploratory walk down an abandoned wagon trail in 1961. Some weeks before, one of us had read of an Ohio River ghost town in western Kentucky across from Illinois; it had been the site of a ferry used heavily from 1823 to 1833. What piqued our interest was the tradition that the ferry crossing and its approaches had witnessed murders of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of westbound pioneers. From the time of its first settlement, the portion of the western bulge of Kentucky that lies between the Tidewater and Cumberland rivers has been known as the "Western Country," but on very early maps it appeared as "The Barren and Naked Land" (Fig 1). The latter designation stemmed from the Indian custom of occasionally burning forest to increase forage for buffalo. Beech, hard maple, papaw, wild plum, black and white oak, red cedar