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Previous research has demonstrated mental fatigue impairs subsequent physical performance, however, current understanding of the role of mental fatigue on physical activity and exercise decision-making is limited for several reasons. For example, research examining the relation between mental fatigue and physical activity behaviors has relied on experimental methods and physical tasks performed in controlled laboratory settings with limited applicability to everyday experiences. In addition, direct measures of motivation commonly used within the literature are subject to biases, highlighting the importance of alternate methods for assessing motivation using indirect measures. To address these limitations, methods with stronger ecological validity are needed to extend research from controlled, experimental settings to measure mental fatigue in naturalistic settings and provide a diverse range of physical activity and exercise task options. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the associations between mental fatigue, motivation, and physical activity behavior to further our understanding of the decision- processes behind choosing to engage or not engage in physical activity. Study 1 examined the effects of mental fatigue on the decision to engage in an acute bout of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity or a competing sedentary alternative using a mixed-methods study design. Results showed a sequential mediation effect of mental fatigue on choice through subjective perceptions of effort, benefits, and costs. Results of qualitative analyses highlight individual-level consequences of completing cognitively demanding and non-demanding tasks on physical activity decision-making. Findings are consistent with previous research and demonstrate subjective perceptions of engaging in physical activity account for acute choice. Study 2 investigated the effects of intensity and duration on people’s subjective valuations of physical activity tasks using an effort discounting paradigm and the potential moderating effect of mental fatigue on subjective valuations of physical activity. Results showed a reduced willingness to engage in physical activities of higher intensities and longer durations. Further, there was partial evidence suggesting a reduced willingness to engage in vigorous-intensity physical activity with higher levels of mental fatigue. Findings provide novel insight towards factors influencing people’s motivation for engaging in physical activity with some evidence that mental fatigue affects people’s motivation to exert physical effort. Study 3 examined the association between mental fatigue, subjective evaluations of perceived benefits and costs, and moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity using ecological momentary assessment and accelerometry. Results demonstrate significant associations between all study variables. Although a multilevel mediation model was not significant, evidence supports a partial mediation effect attributable to benefit vs. cost valuation on the relation between mental fatigue and physical activity. Results provide insight into real-time predictors of motivation and physical activity, highlighting the complex relationships between psychological variables and behavior in people’s everyday decision making. Dissertation Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Mental fatigue has been shown to impair subsequent physical performance, however, the effect of mental fatigue on the decision to engage or not engage in physical activity has received limited attention. This thesis addresses several gaps in the literature by examining potential mediators of the mental fatigue – physical activity decision- making relation, using qualitative methods to understand factors affecting people’s choices, and applying methods with strong ecological validity. Findings show perceived effort and benefit vs. cost valuations associated with engaging in physical activity predict the choice to engage in PA. Further, mental fatigue increases perceptions of effort and decreases benefit vs. cost valuations. Collectively, results from this dissertation align with and extend theoretical frameworks of behavioral economics, motivation, and effort-based decision-making.

This report presents the results of a McMaster Research Shop project for the Hamilton Students for Justice (HS4J), formerly known as the Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board Kids Need Help. Through this project, a review of participatory budgeting (PB) models and practices was conducted in order to examine existing knowledge, provide information related to best practices and suggest recommendations for community organizing in Hamilton. Research methods for this project include a literature review and an environmental scan. A literature review was conducted in order to examine outcomes related to PB in Canada and internationally. Results identified six models of PB and highlight various outcomes of PB compared to conventional budgeting practices, including the reallocation of budgets to better serve social priorities and the minimization of inequities between communities. Challenges of PB include difficulties with transparency, low levels of participation, and logistics. Three recommendations for best practices were also identified: 1) Include a diverse group of people throughout the PB process; 2) Garner support for PB from city officials; and 3) Establish clear and shared definitions of the rules of PB. Results from our environmental scan of PB practices within Canada and internationally, including the cities of Peterborough, Victoria, Seattle, Paris, and Madrid, identified unique processes and outcomes. In these communities, PB projects improved infrastructure, enhanced community services, and increased civic engagement. Based on our research, we provided three recommendations for HS4J to consider when advocating for the expansion of PB throughout the City of Hamilton: 1) Establish a strong network; 2) Develop a marketing plan to attract and engage residents; and 3) Continue developing a People’s Budget that provides an alternative to the current budget provided by City Council.

This report was prepared by Research Associates from the McMaster Research Shop on behalf of The Boys and Girls Club of Hamilton (Kiwanis) – a longstanding community resource centre offering a variety of educational and social support systems to local youth. The objective of this project was to assist the staff with an evaluation of the ABACUS program. ABACUS had been collecting pre- and post-program survey data to evaluate their program from 2017-2019. However, due to limitations in the data, the team was unable to draw conclusions about the program’s impact. Future evaluative practices will be important to determine the program’s impact and identify opportunities to improve the program. To build Kiwanis’s capacity for evaluation, the Research Team created an updated online version of the survey along with an updated survey administration process for pre- and post-program assessments to help the organization collect and analyze program data from participants. In addition, the Research Team developed a focus group guide and facilitation procedures to support mixed-methods data collection, along with a guide for synthesizing quantitative and qualitative data. By coupling pre- and post-program surveys with focus groups, staff leading the ABACUS program will be better equipped to evaluate the ABACUS program.

People’s decisions regarding effort-based tasks such as engaging in physical activity depend on the subjective value of the activity: weighing the costs against the benefits (Chong et al., 2016). Exerting cognitive effort while performing one task negatively biases people's decisions to exert effort on subsequent cognitive tasks, suggesting a shift in their subjective valuation of the task due to mental fatigue (Kool & Botvinick, 2014). Similarly, exerting physical effort negatively biases decisions to further exert effort on a future physical task (Iodice et al., 2017a, Iodice et al., 2017b). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of mental fatigue on people's decisions to engage in an acute bout of exercise and whether the effect of mental fatigue on decision-making was mediated by a benefit-cost analysis. Among those who decided to exercise, the study also aimed to investigate the relationship between mental fatigue and exercise behaviours during a self-selected, self-paced, bout of exercise. Recreationally active participants (N = 55, Mage = 19.04 ± 1.04 years) completed either a 10-minute, high cognitive demand (Stroop) task or low cognitive demand (documentary viewing) task to manipulate levels of mental fatigue. Participants then made a choice between engaging in a 20-minute self-paced moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise task or a 20-minute non-exercise task. Prior to choosing, participants rated their mental fatigue and their perceived benefits and costs of the exercise task. The cognitive task had a strong effect on mental fatigue (p < .001, Cohen's d = 1.40). The mediation analysis showed no direct effect of mental fatigue on choice; however, there was a significant indirect effect indicating the benefit-cost score mediated the effect of mental fatigue on choice (95% C.I. = -.02 to -.0004). Higher levels of mental fatigue were associated with a lower benefit-cost score (r = -.33, p = .01) which, in turn, was associated with a decreased likelihood of choosing the exercise task (r = .31, p = .02). For those who chose to engage in the exercise task (N = 28), higher levels of mental fatigue were associated with higher ratings of perceived exertion (r = .38, p = .05). Findings provide insight into the effects of mental fatigue on people's exercise behaviours, illustrating a rational decision-making process that is dependent upon the subjective evaluation of the costs and benefits of engaging in physical activity or sedentary alternatives. Thesis Master of Science (MSc)