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Objective: Despite growing evidence of distinct nutrition-related experiences and disparities, transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) youth and young adults are an underrepresented population in nutrition research. This paper describes the methods and study design from Project Gender NutriScope, a study that will explore the nutritional needs of TGD youth and young adults., Design: Parallel convergent cross-sectional mixed methods; community-engaged., Setting: A purposive sample will be recruited in a Midwest city through clinics, youth organizations, and a large state university., Participants: Transgender and gender-diverse youth and young adults aged 13-24 years., Intervention: Findings from this formative study will be used to inform future intervention development., Main Outcome Measures: Dietary intake, eating patterns, disordered eating patterns, food security status, perceptions of relationship with food, and nutrition-related concerns., Analysis: Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive summary statistics. Qualitative data will be analyzed by reflexive thematic analysis. The 2 databases will be integrated iteratively., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors stated no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: With dual focus on structured, objective quantification of parent observations of child's behavior and identifying behaviors most amenable to change, this report examines Parent Target Problems (PTP) as a secondary outcome in a randomized clinical trial (RCT) of children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in which one primary outcome, Clinical Global Impression-Improvement, showed a significant advantage of multinutrients over placebo and the other, Likert-type parent ratings, showed significant improvement in both groups, without significant difference between them., Method: In a multisite 8-week RCT of broad-spectrum micronutrients ("multinutrients"), parents of children ages 6-12 (N = 126, 73% male, 88% white) with ADHD and emotional dysregulation nominated their child's most concerning problem(s) at baseline and quantified them by frequency, duration, impairment, and consequences. At subsequent visits, parents re-quantified the problem(s). Blinded child psychiatrists independently reviewed the PTPs and rated change at two timepoints compared to baseline. PTPs were grouped into 9 categories. Mean ratings were compared between active and placebo groups and explored by category., Results: By week 8, a significant separation favored multinutrients: 38% of the multinutrient group were "definitely improved" or better, compared to 25% of the placebo group, and ratings of "no change" or "worse" occurred in 35% with placebo versus 23% with multinutrients (p = 0.04). Inattention (72.2%) and emotional dysregulation (69.1%) were the most frequently reported PTP categories. Inattention and internalizing symptoms improved more with multinutrients than placebo (p = 0.01, d = 0.55; p = 0.03, d = 0.80, respectively). The multinutrient advantage was not significant for 7 other symptoms, including hyperactivity/impulsivity, aggression, autistic symptoms, or emotional dysregulation/irritable oppositionality., Conclusions: This secondary analysis found that the multinutrients, compared to placebo, were associated with improvements in parental concerns overall, and in two domains specifically: inattention and internalizing symptoms (anxiety/depression), but not in seven domains: hyperactivity/impulsivity, aggression, autistic symptoms or physiological symptoms, peer relationships or emotional dysregulation/irritable oppositionality., Competing Interests: Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Essential minerals are cofactors for synthesis of neurotransmitters supporting cognition and mood. An 8-week fully-blind randomised controlled trial of multinutrients for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) demonstrated three times as many children (age 6-12) had significantly improved behaviour ('treatment responders') on multinutrients (54 %) compared with placebo (18 %). The aim of this secondary study was to evaluate changes in fasted plasma and urinary mineral concentrations following the intervention and their role as mediators and moderators of treatment response. Fourteen essential or trace minerals were measured in plasma and/or urine at baseline and week eight from eighty-six participants (forty-nine multinutrients, thirty-seven placebos). Two-sample t tests/Mann-Whitney U tests compared 8-week change between treatment and placebo groups, which were also evaluated as potential mediators. Baseline levels were evaluated as potential moderators, using logistic regression models with clinical treatment response as the outcome. After 8 weeks, plasma boron, Cr (in females only), Li, Mo, Se and vanadium and urinary iodine, Li and Se increased more with multinutrients than placebo, while plasma phosphorus decreased. These changes did not mediate treatment response. However, baseline urinary Li trended towards moderation: participants with lower baseline urinary Li were more likely to respond to multinutrients ( P = 0·058). Additionally, participants with higher baseline Fe were more likely to be treatment responders regardless of the treatment group ( P = 0·036.) These results show that multinutrient treatment response among children with ADHD is independent of their baseline plasma mineral levels, while baseline urinary Li levels show potential as a non-invasive biomarker of treatment response requiring further study.

Objectives: The 8-week Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) randomized controlled trial ( N  = 126, age 6-12) of broad-spectrum multinutrients for ADHD with emotional dysregulation found 3 times as many responders with multinutrients (54%) compared to placebo (18%) by Clinical Global Impression-Improvement (CGI-I). Our primary aim for this analysis tests the hypothesis that those with poor overall diet quality at baseline benefit more. The second aim is to explore whether specific components of diet quality moderate treatment response., Methods: 124 children (69 multinutrients, 55 placebo) had diet quality assessed using the Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015). For each potential moderator, the outcome CGI-I at week 8 (RCT-end), was modeled two ways: (1) as a dichotomous variable: responder/non-responder, with responders defined by a rating of 1 or 2 'very much' or 'much improved,' all else equals non-responder using logistic regression, and (2) as a dimensional improvement outcome from 1 = very much improved to 7 = very much worse, using linear regression., Results: HEI-2015 total score did not moderate treatment response [odds ratio = 1.00 (95% CI: 0.90,1.10), p  = 0.984] or improvement [β = -0.01 (95% CI: -0.06,0.04), p  = 0.648]. However, total vegetable intake moderated level of improvement in exploratory analysis [β = -0.48 (95% CI: -0.82, -0.13), p  = 0.007]: those with higher baseline vegetable intake showed greater benefit from multinutrients compared to placebo., Conclusions: Multinutrients may benefit children with ADHD and irritability regardless of overall diet quality. The finding that higher baseline vegetable intake may improve response to multinutrients deserves further exploration, including dietary effect on gut microbiota and absorption of multinutrients and parental factors.

The United States' (US) African immigrant (AI) population is growing, yet they are underrepresented in health and nutrition research. This population experiences difficulties finding culturally appropriate foods and navigating the US food environment (FE), is highly food insecure (FI), and vulnerable to mental disorders. This review examined the current evidence for AIs' food and mental health outcomes and connections; and identified gaps in the literature and future research opportunities. A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar, PubMed, CINAHL, MEDLINE, and SCOPUS. Twenty-one studies were identified, reporting high (37-85%) FI rates, poor diet quality, and increased risk of mental disorders among participants. Challenges in the FE, lack of transportation, limited access to ethnic foods, low SES, and language barriers were associated with FI and poor diet quality. Similarly, discrimination, substance use, and immigration status were associated with depression and anxiety. However, studies examining the connection between AI's food experience and mental health are lacking. AIs are at a higher risk for FI, poor diet quality, and mental disorders. Ethnic-specific research to understand the connection between their food and mental health is needed to reduce nutrition and mental health disparities., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

Background: A growing body of evidence suggests that obesity can affect cognitive function. However, it is unclear whether this effect is independent of obesity-related comorbidities. This study thus sought to determine the association between body composition and cognitive function of young adults in Ghana with less predisposition to obesity-related comorbidities., Methods: A cross-sectional study design was employed, involving 381 participants recruited by simple random sampling. After consenting, participants completed questionnaires that assessed sociodemographic characteristics, along with assessments for anthropometric measures and cognitive function. Analyses for associations were conducted by either Pearson's correlation test or chi-Square test of independence., Results: Over half (60%) of participants were females and 69.6% were in the first year with a mean age of 20.18 ± 2.52 years. Based on Pearson's correlation test, no significant association was found between Body Mass Index (BMI) and Waist to Hip Ratio (WHR), and Trail Making Test-A and B (TMT-A and TMT-B). Nonetheless, a chi-square test showed a significant association, between BMI and TMT-A (p = 0.01), and WHR and both TMT-A (p = 0.001) and TMT-B (p = 0.02). Weak direct correlations were found between body fat percentage and TMT-A (r = 0.120, p = 0.019) and TMT-B (r = 0.133, p = 0.009). Further, a weak inverse correlation was found between muscle mass and TMT-A (r = - 0.141, p = 0.006) and TMT-B (r = - 0.144, p = 0.005)., Conclusion: High body fat, low muscle mass and body fat distribution may have a significant association with cognitive functions and must be considered in obesity interventions. This study provided more insight on the association between BMI and cognitive function and would be helpful in designing new weight management interventions or modifying existing interventions to consider the influence of obesity on cognitive function., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Dietary intake of long-chain n -3 PUFA ( n -3 PUFA), particularly EPA and DHA, has been associated with psychological well-being, but little is known about the n -3 PUFA intake of homeless youth. The current study determined the association between depression and anxiety symptoms and n -3 PUFA intake and erythrocytes status in homeless youth. Totally, 114 homeless youth aged 18-24 years were recruited from a drop-in centre. n -3 PUFA dietary intake was assessed using an FFQ, and erythrocytes status was determined by gas chromatography (GC). Linear regression models were used to determine the relationship between psychological well-being and n -3 PUFA intake and status. The mean intakes of EPA and DHA for all participants (0·06 ± 0·13 g/d and 0·11 ± 0·24 g/d) were well below recommended levels, and mean erythrocytes EPA + DHA ( n -3 index) in the cohort (2·42 %) was lower than reported for healthy, housed adolescents and those with clinical depression. There was no association of n -3 PUFA intake and erythrocytes status with either depression or anxiety. However, the relationships of depression with dietary EPA ( P = 0·017) and DHA ( P = 0·008), as well as erythrocytes DHA ( P = 0·007) and n 3-index ( P = 0·009), were significantly moderated by sex even after adjusting for confounders. Specifically, among females, as the intake and status of these n -3 PUFA decreased, depression increased. Our findings show poor dietary intake and low erythrocytes status of n -3 PUFA among homeless youth, which is associated with depressive symptoms among females.

Objectives: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a U.S. pediatric prevalence of 8-10%. It presents with inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity; frequently associated with emotional dysregulation (ED) symptoms common in Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder. The etiology of ADHD is multi-factorial; symptom severity is associated with diet. This study examines the association of diet quality with ADHD and ED symptoms within a pediatric research cohort., Methods: Baseline data were analyzed for 134 children aged 6-12 years with symptoms of ADHD and ED enrolled in an RCT of multinutrient supplementation. Diet quality was based on Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015). ADHD and ED symptoms were assessed using Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory-5 and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Linear regression models, adjusting for covariates when necessary, determined association., Results: The mean HEI Total Score of 63.4 (SD = 8.8) was not significantly associated with any outcome symptoms. However, after adjusting for covariates, HEI component scores for total fruit intake (β =  -0.158, p  = .037) and total vegetable intake (β =  -0.118, p  = .004) were negatively associated with inattention., Conclusions: The lack of association with total diet quality could be explained by the relatively good baseline diet quality and mild symptom severity in this sample, along with measurement error from dietary intake estimates and relatively small sample size. These findings suggest that dietary intake may impact inattention in children with ADHD and ED: those eating less fruits and vegetables were likely to have more severe symptoms of inattention. Causality is not established by this cross-sectional analysis.

Purpose: Nearly 50% of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience emotional dysregulation or sensory over-responsiveness; this study examines their association., Methods: This cross-sectional analysis ( n  = 124) used data from the Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) Study, which enrolled children aged 6-12 with ADHD and emotional dysregulation. Sensory responsiveness was assessed using two subscales from the factor-analyzed Temperament in Middle Childhood Questionnaire: Pain Sensitivity and Perceptual Sensitivity. Emotional dysregulation was assessed using the Emotional-Problems and Conduct-Problems subscales from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and a composite score from the Child & Adolescent Symptom Inventory-5. Multivariable linear regression measured the association of pain and perceptual sensitivity with the severity of emotional dysregulation., Results: In adjusted models, pain sensitivity was positively associated with Emotional Problems ( β  = 0.97; 95% CI: 0.52, 1.41; p  < 0.0001), Conduct Problems ( β  = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.44, 1.21; p  = 0.0001), and CASI-5 composite ( β  = 0.25; 95% CI: 0.16, 0.34; p  < 0.0001). Perceptual sensitivity was positively associated with Emotional Problems ( β  = 0.75; 95% CI: 0.15, 1.35; p  = 0.01) but not Conduct Problems ( β  = 0.27; 95% CI: -0.24, 0.77; p  = 0.30) or CASI-5 composite ( β  = 0.12; 95% CI: -0.01, 0.24; p  = 0.07)., Conclusion: Pain sensitivity was associated with the severity of emotional dysregulation in this ADHD sample. To better understand possible causal links, longitudinal studies are warranted.Implications for rehabilitationEmotional dysregulation and sensory over-responsiveness are both common in children with ADHD and contribute to added challenges in school and family life.Two types of sensory over-responsiveness, pain sensitivity and perceptual sensitivity, were associated with emotional dysregulation in children with ADHD in our study.Sensory over-responsiveness may be a modifiable treatment target.

Structural firefighters (SFFs) are exposed to multiple occupational hazards that affect dietary behavior and can contribute to increased risks of cancer and cardiovascular disease compared to the United States' general population. Dietary behavior is a feasible modification for positive health outcomes. The objectives of this narrative review are to summarize the diet behavior of SFFs, review findings of diet interventions that positively modify diet behavior, identify research gaps, and suggest recommendations for addressing those gaps. PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, and CABI Web of Science were searched between February 2020 and June 2022 for peer-reviewed articles. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) study population must include SFFs; (2) investigate diet or diet intervention among SFFs; (3) report results specific to SFFs; and (4) be published in the English language. Thirty-four studies were included. Results indicate that SFFs recognize the importance of a healthy dietary pattern, but do not follow one, and that food choices are often influenced by colleagues. Diet interventions, such as the Mediterranean diet, were observed to have positive health improvements, such as improved lipid levels and lower CVD risk. Team counseling was found to be more effective for adopting healthier diets compared to one-on-one counseling; and general counseling was more effective than no counseling. A gap identified by this review is the lack of information concerning differences in dietary intake, diet quality, and dietary behaviors while on- and off-shift, and throughout the career. Diet is an important risk factor for occupational disease development; therefore, effective, consistent dietary interventions are necessary.

Objective: The Pediatric Adverse Event Rating Scale (PAERS) measured adverse events of children aged 6-12 years with ADHD and emotional dysregulation in the Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) study, an eight week multi-site randomized clinical trial of a broad-spectrum multinutrient treatment. Treatment sensitivity of the PAERS was assessed by calculating the treatment difference in change of the item scores from baseline to end of the RCT., Methods: Principal component analysis retained 14 "adverse events" (out of 43 in the PAERS) that reflected ADHD symptoms and emotional dysregulation and was used to group the variables of interest. A combined score ranging from 0 to 5 was created based on symptom presence, functional impairment, and severity. Mean score change was calculated from baseline to week 8 by treatment (multinutrient vs placebo) with intention-to-treat and per-protocol samples. The study has been registered on clinicaltrials.gov as Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) Study, trial registration # NCT03252522 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03252522 ) ., Results: The 126 children in the ITT sample had a mean age of 9.8 (SD = 1.7), with majority (73%) male, and 72% diagnosed with ADHD prior to the study screening. Baseline presence of PAERS symptoms was similar between treatment groups: the highest proportion was ADHD symptoms, followed by Irritable symptoms. The micronutrient group showed a greater decrease (improvement) in the mean anxiety combined score than the placebo group with a between-group difference in change of -0.36 (95% CI: -0.67, -0.04; p  = .03) with ITT data and -0.48 (95% CI: -0.81, -0.15; p  = .005) with per-protocol ( n  = 93) data., Conclusion: The multinutrient supplement did not result in more adverse events than placebo, suggesting it is a safe intervention. In addition to assessing actual adverse events, the PAERS may be a useful adjunct outcome measure for ADHD behaviors.

Aim: To investigate the association between dietary patterns and total and obesity-related cancers risk. Additionally, to examine if acculturation modifies this relationship., Subject and Methods: Dietary intake of postmenopausal Hispanic women (N=5,482) enrolled in the Women's Health Initiative was estimated from a Food Frequency Questionnaire and used to calculate dietary pattern scores; Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015), Mexican Diet (MexD) score, alternate Mediterranean Diet Score (aMED), and the energy adjusted-Dietary Inflammatory Index (E-DII™). Associations were evaluated using Cox proportional hazards regression models., Results: 631 cancers and 396 obesity-related cancers were diagnosed over a mean-follow up of 12 years. Across dietary scores, there were no significant associations with cancer risk or mortality. Trend analysis suggest a potentially lower risk for total cancer related to the highest MexD score (HR 0.68, 95% CI 0.45-1.04, P -trend=0.03), and lower risk for obesity-related cancer mortality related to the highest score category for MexD (HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.37-1.16, P -trend=0.02), and aMED (HR 0.87, 95% CI 0.45-1.67, P -trend=0.04). Further analysis suggests less acculturated women with higher MexD scores had 56% lower risk for any cancer (HR 0.44, 95% CI 0.22-0.88, P- trend=0.03) and 83% lower risk for cancer mortality (HR 0.17, 95% CI 0.04-0.76, P- trend=0.01) compared to more acculturated Hispanic women., Conclusions: Dietary patterns were not associated with cancer risk and mortality in postmenopausal Hispanic women. Less-acculturated, Spanish-preferred speakers, who reported consuming a more traditional Mexican diet may experience a lower risk for cancer and cancer mortality., Competing Interests: Competing Interests: Authors declare no potential conflicts of interest.

The association of household food insecurity with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and emotional dysregulation in children was examined in this study. We utilized baseline data from 134 children aged 6-12 years who were enrolled in a clinical trial investigating multinutrient supplementation as a treatment for ADHD and emotional dysregulation. Household food security status was assessed using the 18-item US Household Food Security Survey Module. The symptoms of ADHD and emotional dysregulation disorders (oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD)) were assessed using the Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory-5 and other comorbid emotional dysregulation symptoms were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Multiple linear regression determined associations between household food security status and symptoms of ADHD, ODD and DMDD, emotional symptoms and conduct problems. Household food insecurity was associated with more severe emotional symptoms (β = 2.30; 95% CI = 0.87-3.73; p = 0.002), conduct problems (β = 1.15; 95% CI = 0.01-2.30; p = 0.049) and total difficulties scores (β = 4.59; 95% CI = 1.82-7.37; p = 0.001) after adjusting for covariates (child's sex, parent marital status, household income, parental anxiety and other parental psychopathology). In unadjusted analyses, household food insecurity was also associated with increased ODD (β = 0.58; 95% CI = 0.21-0.95; p = 0.003) and DMDD symptoms (β = 0.69; 95% CI = 0.20-1.19; p = 0.006), but these associations attenuated to non-significance after adjusting for all covariates. Household food insecurity was associated with more severe emotional dysregulation symptoms. Discussing and addressing food insecurity may be appropriate initial steps for youths with ADHD and emotional dysregulation.

Older adults have physical and social barriers to eating but whether this affects functional status is unknown. We examined associations between eating barriers and physical function in the Women's Health Initiative (WHI). In 2012-14, a subset of alive and participating women (n = 5910) completed an in-home examination including the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) (grip strength, balance, timed walking speed, chair stand). WHI participants complete annual mailed questionnaires; the 2013-14 questionnaire included items on eating alone, eating < two meals/day, dentition problems affecting eating, physical difficulties with cooking/shopping and monetary resources for food. Linear regression tested associations of these eating barriers with SPPB, adjusting for BMI, age, race/ethnicity, and medical multimorbidities. Over half (56.8%) of participants were ≥ 75 years, 98.8% had a BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m 2 and 66% had multimorbidities. Eating barriers, excluding eating alone, were associated with significantly lower total (all p < .001) and component-specific, multivariate-adjusted SPPB scores (all p < .05). Compared to no barriers, eating < two meals/day (7.83 vs. 8.38, p < .0002), dentition problems (7.69 vs. 8.38, p < .0001), inability to shop/prepare meals (7.74 vs. 8.38, p < .0001) and insufficient resources (7.84 vs. 8.37 p < .001) were significantly associated with multivariate-adjusted mean SPPB score < 8. Models additionally adjusting for Healthy Eating Index-2010 had little influence on scores. As barriers increased, scores declined further for grip strength (16.10 kg for 4-5 barriers, p = .001), timed walk (0.58 m/s for 4-5 barriers, p = .001) and total SPPB (7.27 for 4-5 barriers, p < .0001). In conclusion, in this WHI subset, eating barriers were associated with poor SPPB scores., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest All authors have declared no financial or personal conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Micronutrients have demonstrated promise in managing inattention and emotional dysregulation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). One plausible pathway by which micronutrients improve symptoms is the gut microbiome. This study examines changes in fecal microbial composition and diversity after micronutrient supplementation in children with ADHD ( N  = 44) and highlights potential mechanisms responsible for the behavioral improvement, as determined by blinded clinician-rated global improvement response to micronutrients. Participants represent a sub-group of the Micronutrients for ADHD in Youth (MADDY) study, a double blind randomized controlled trial in which participants received micronutrients or placebo for 8 weeks, followed by an 8-week open extension. Stool samples collected at baseline, week 8, and week 16 were analyzed using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing targeting the V4 hypervariable region. Pairwise compositional analyses investigated changes in fecal microbial composition between micronutrients versus placebo and responders versus non-responders. A significant change in microbial evenness, as measured by alpha diversity, and beta-diversity, as measured by Bray-Curtis, was observed following micronutrients supplementation. The phylum Actinobacteriota decreased in the micronutrients group compared to placebo. Two butyrate-producing bacterial families: Rikenellaceae and Oscillospiraceae , exhibited a significant increase in change following micronutrients between responders versus non-responders. These findings suggest that micronutrients modulated the composition of the fecal microbiota and identified specific bacterial changes associated with micronutrient responders.

Background: Women gain total body weight and accrue body fat during pregnancy. Breastfeeding has been suggested as an efficient means of promoting postpartum weight loss due to its high energy cost. We investigated the effect of infant feeding mode on maternal body composition., Methods: This study evaluated maternal weight and percent body fat changes in exclusively breastfeeding versus mixed feeding mothers during the first 12 weeks postpartum using the BOD POD. Twenty four mothers aged 19 - 42 years were studied. Participants were recruited from Athens-Clarke County and surrounding areas of the State of Georgia, USA. The study was conducted between November 2005 and December 2006., Results: Prepregnancy weight was higher in mixed feeding mothers than in exclusively breastfeeding mothers (68.4 kg vs. 61.4 kg) but the difference was not statistically significant. At 12 weeks postpartum, exclusively breastfeeding mothers had lost more total body weight than mixed feeding mothers (4.41 +/- 4.10 kg versus 2.79 +/- 3.09 kg; p = 0.072). There was no significant difference in fat weight change between the two groups (4.38 +/- 2.06 kg versus 4.17 +/- 2.63 kg). However, mixed feeding mothers lost slightly more percent body fat than exclusively breastfeeding mothers (1.90 +/- 4.18 kg versus 1.71 +/- 3.48 kg), but the difference was not statistically significant. The trend in percent body fat loss was significant among exclusively breastfeeding mothers (p = 0.034) but not mixed feeding mothers (p = 0.081). Exclusively breastfeeding mothers consumed more calories than mixed feeding mothers (1980 +/- 618 kcal versus 1541 +/- 196 kcal p = 0.08). Physical activity levels were, however, higher in mixed feeding mothers than exclusively breastfeeding mothers., Conclusion: Our results provide further evidence that exclusive breastfeeding promotes greater weight loss than mixed feeding among mothers even in the early postpartum period. This suggests that there is the need to encourage mothers to exclusively breastfeed as a means of overweight and obesity prevention.