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Seasonal plasticity in male courtship in Bicyclus anynana butterflies is due to variation in levels of the steroid hormone 20E (20-hydroxyecdysone) during pupation. Wet season (WS) males have high levels of 20E and become active courters. Dry season (DS) males have lower levels of 20E and reduced courtship rates. However, WS courtship rates can be achieved if DS male pupae are injected with 20E at 30% of pupation. Here, we investigated the genes involved in male courtship plasticity and examined whether 20E plays an organizational role in the pupal brain that later influences the sexual behaviour of adults. We show that DS pupal brains have a sevenfold upregulation of the yellow gene relative to the WS brains, and that knocking out yellow leads to increased male courtship. We find that injecting 20E into DS pupa reduced yellow expression although not significantly. Our results show that yellow is a repressor of the neural circuity for male courtship behaviour in B. anynana . 20E levels experienced during pupation could play an organizational role during pupal brain development by regulating yellow expression, however, other factors might also be involved. Our findings are in striking contrast to Drosophila where yellow is required for male courtship.

Seasonal plasticity in male courtship in

Butterfly eyespots are beautiful novel traits with an unknown developmental origin. Here we show that eyespots likely originated via cooption of parts of an ancestral appendage gene-regulatory network (GRN) to novel locations on the wing. Using comparative transcriptome analysis, we show that eyespots cluster most closely with antennae, relative to multiple other tissues. Furthermore, three genes essential for eyespot development

Butterfly wings exhibit a diversity of patterns which can vary between forewings and hindwings and spatially across the same wing. Regulation of morphological variation involves changes in how genes are expressed across different spatial scales which is driven by chromatin dynamics during development. How patterns of chromatin dynamics correspond to morphological variation remains unclear. Here we compared the chromatin landscape between forewings and hindwings and also across the proximal and distal regions of the hindwings in two butterfly species, Bicyclus anynana and Danaus plexippus. We found that the chromatin profile varied significantly between the different wing regions, however, there was no clear correspondence between the chromatin profile and the wing patterns. In some cases, wing regions with different phenotypes shared the same chromatin profile whereas those with a similar phenotype had a different profile. We also found that in the forewing, open chromatin regions (OCRs) were AT rich whereas those in the hindwing were GC rich. GC content of the OCRs also varied between the proximal and hindwing regions. These differences in GC content were also reflected in the transcription factor binding motifs that were differentially enriched between the wings and wing regions. Our results suggest that distinct wing patterns may result from the interaction of pioneer factors, including Hox genes, differentially opening chromatin in different wings and wing regions and cooperating with other transcriptions factors, that show preferences for specific GC content, to function either as activator or repressors of nearby genes.

The organizational role for hormones in the regulation of sexual behavior is currently poorly explored. Previous work showed that seasonal variation in levels of the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) during pupal development regulates plasticity in male courtship behavior in Bicyclus anynana butterflies. Wet season (WS) males, reared at high temperature, have high levels of 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) during pupation and become active courters. Dry season (DS) males, reared at low temperatures, have lower levels of 20E and lower courtship rates. Rescue of WS courtship rates can be achieved via injection of 20E into DS male pupae, but it is still unknown whether 20E alters gene expression in the pupal brain, and if so, the identity of those targets. Using transcriptomics, qPCR, and behavioral assays with a transgenic knockout, we show that higher expression levels of the yellow gene in DS male pupal brains, relative to WS brains, represses courtship in DS males. Furthermore, injecting DS males with 20E downregulates yellow to WS levels 4 hours post-injection, revealing a hormone sensitive window that determines courtship behavior. These findings are in striking contrast to Drosophila, where yellow is required for active male courtship behavior. We conclude that 20E plays an organizational role during pupal brain development by regulating the expression of yellow, which is a repressor of the neural circuity for male courtship behavior in B. anynana. This work shows that similar to vertebrates, hormones can also play an organizational role in insect brains, leading to permanent changes in adult sexual behavior.Significance StatementBehavioral plasticity in adult insects is known to be regulated by hormones, which activate neural circuits in response to environmental cues. Here, we show that hormones can also regulate adult behavioral plasticity by altering gene expression during brain development, adjusting the insect’s behavior to predictable seasonal environmental variation. We show that seasonal changes in the hormone 20E alters expression of the yellow gene in the developing pupal brain of Bicyclus anynana butterflies, which leads to differences in male courtship behavior between the dry and wet seasonal forms. This work provides one of the first examples of the organizational role of hormones in altering gene expression and adult sexual behavior in the developing insect brain.

Butterfly eyespots are beautiful novel traits with an unknown developmental origin. Here we show that eyespots likely originated via co-option of the antennal gene-regulatory network (GRN) to novel locations on the wing. Using comparative transcriptome analysis, we show that eyespots cluster with antennae relative to multiple other tissues. Furthermore, three genes essential for eyespot development (Distal-less(Dll),spalt(sal), andAntennapedia(Antp)) share similar regulatory connections as those observed in the antennal GRN. CRISPR knockout ofcis-regulatory elements (CREs) forDllandsalled to the loss of eyespots and antennae, and also legs and wings, demonstrating that these CREs are highly pleiotropic. We conclude that eyespots likely re-used the ancient antennal GRN, a network previously implicated also in the development of legs and wings.

Identifying the genetic architecture underlying phenotypic variation in natural populations and assessing the consequences of polymorphisms for individual fitness are fundamental goals in evolutionary and molecular ecology. Consistent between-individual differences in behaviour have been documented for a variety of taxa. Dissecting the genetic basis of such behavioural differences is however a challenging endeavour. The molecular underpinnings of natural variation in aggression remain elusive. Here, we used comparative gene expression (transcriptome analysis and RT-PCR), genetic association analysis and pharmacological experiments to gain insight into the genetic basis of aggression in wild-caught jumping spiders (Portia labiata). We show that spider aggression is associated with a putative viral infection response gene, BTB/POZ domain-containing protein 17 (BTBDH), in addition to a putative serotonin receptor 1A (5-HT1A) gene. Spider aggression varies with virus loads, and BTBDH is upregulated in docile spiders and exhibits a genetic variant associated with aggression. We also identify a putative serotonin receptor 5-HT1A gene upregulated in docile P. labiata. Individuals that have been treated with serotonin become less aggressive, but individuals treated with a nonselective serotonin receptor antagonist (methiothepin) also reduce aggression. Further, we identify the genetic variants in the 5-HT1A gene that are associated with individual variation in aggression. We therefore conclude that co-evolution of the immune and nervous systems may have shaped the between-individual variation in aggression in natural populations of jumping spiders.

Eyespots on the wings of nymphalid butterflies represent colorful examples of pattern formation, yet the developmental origins and mechanisms underlying eyespot center differentiation are still poorly understood. Using CRISPR-Cas9 we re-examine the function of Distal-less (Dll) as an activator or repressor of eyespots, a topic that remains controversial. We show that the phenotypic outcome of CRISPR mutations depends upon which specific exon is targeted. In Bicyclus anynana, exon 2 mutations are associated with both missing and ectopic eyespots, and also exon skipping. Exon 3 mutations, which do not lead to exon skipping, produce only null phenotypes, including missing eyespots, lighter wing coloration and loss of scales. Reaction-diffusion modeling of Dll function, using Wnt and Dpp as candidate morphogens, accurately replicates these complex crispant phenotypes. These results provide new insight into the function of Dll as a potential activator of eyespot development, scale growth and melanization, and suggest that the tuning of Dll expression levels can generate a diversity of eyespot phenotypes, including their appearance on the wing.This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.

Eyespots on the wings of nymphalid butterflies represent colorful examples of pattern formation, yet the developmental origins and mechanisms underlying eyespot center differentiation are still poorly understood. Using CRISPR-Cas9 we re-examine the function of Distal-less (Dll) as an activator or repressor of eyespots, a topic that remains controversial. We show that the phenotypic outcome of CRISPR mutations depends upon which specific exon is targeted. In Bicyclus anynana, exon 2 mutations are associated with both missing and ectopic eyespots, and also exon skipping. Exon 3 mutations, which do not lead to exon skipping, produce only null phenotypes, including missing eyespots, lighter wing coloration and loss of scales. Reaction-diffusion modeling of Dll function, using Wnt and Dpp as candidate morphogens, accurately replicates these complex crispant phenotypes. These results provide new insight into the function of Dll as a potential activator of eyespot development, scale growth and melanization, and suggest that the tuning of Dll expression levels can generate a diversity of eyespot phenotypes, including their appearance on the wing. This article has an associated ‘The people behind the papers’ interview., Highlighted Article: CRISPR-generated mutants and theoretical modeling show that Dll is a crucial activator of butterfly wing eyespot center differentiation.

Eyespots on the wings of nymphalid butterflies represent colorful examples of the process of pattern formation, yet the developmental origins and the mechanisms behind eyespot differentiation are still not fully understood. Here we re-examine the function ofDistal-less (Dll)in eyespot development, which is still unclear. We show that CRISPR-Cas9 induced exon 2 mutations inBicyclus anynanaleads to exon skipping and ectopic eyespots on the wing. Exon 3 mutations, however, lead to null/missense transcripts, missing eyespots, lighter wing coloration, loss of scales, and a variety of other phenotypes implicatingDllin the process of eyespot differentiation. Reaction-diffusion modeling enabled exploration of the function ofDllin eyespot formation, and accurately replicated a wide-range of mutant phenotypes. These results confirm thatDllis a required activator of eyespot development, scale growth and melanization and point to a new mechanism of alternative splicing to achieveDllover-expression phenotypes.

The mycalesine butterfly Bicyclus anynana, the “Squinting bush brown,” is a model organism in the study of lepidopteran ecology, development, and evolution. Here, we present a draft genome sequence for B. anynana to serve as a genomics resource for current and future studies of this important model species. Seven libraries with insert sizes ranging from 350 bp to 20 kb were constructed using DNA from an inbred female and sequenced using both Illumina and PacBio technology; 128 Gb of raw Illumina data was filtered to 124 Gb and assembled to a final size of 475 Mb (∼×260 assembly coverage). Contigs were scaffolded using mate-pair, transcriptome, and PacBio data into 10 800 sequences with an N50 of 638 kb (longest scaffold 5 Mb). The genome is comprised of 26% repetitive elements and encodes a total of 22 642 predicted protein-coding genes. Recovery of a BUSCO set of core metazoan genes was almost complete (98%). Overall, these metrics compare well with other recently published lepidopteran genomes. We report a high-quality draft genome sequence for Bicyclus anynana. The genome assembly and annotated gene models are available at LepBase (http://ensembl.lepbase.org/index.html).

Background Butterfly wing color patterns are an important model system for understanding the evolution and development of morphological diversity and animal pigmentation. Wing color patterns develop from a complex network composed of highly conserved patterning genes and pigmentation pathways. Patterning genes are involved in regulating pigment synthesis however the temporal expression dynamics of these interacting networks is poorly understood. Here, we employ next generation sequencing to examine expression patterns of the gene network underlying wing development in the nymphalid butterfly, Vanessa cardui. Results We identified 9, 376 differentially expressed transcripts during wing color pattern development, including genes involved in patterning, pigmentation and gene regulation. Differential expression of these genes was highest at the pre-ommochrome stage compared to early pupal and late melanin stages. Overall, an increasing number of genes were down-regulated during the progression of wing development. We observed dynamic expression patterns of a large number of pigment genes from the ommochrome, melanin and also pteridine pathways, including contrasting patterns of expression for paralogs of the yellow gene family. Surprisingly, many patterning genes previously associated with butterfly pattern elements were not significantly up-regulated at any time during pupation, although many other transcription factors were differentially expressed. Several genes involved in Notch signaling were significantly up-regulated during the pre-ommochrome stage including slow border cells, bunched and pebbles; the function of these genes in the development of butterfly wings is currently unknown. Many genes involved in ecdysone signaling were also significantly up-regulated during early pupal and late melanin stages and exhibited opposing patterns of expression relative to the ecdysone receptor. Finally, a comparison across four butterfly transcriptomes revealed 28 transcripts common to all four species that have no known homologs in other metazoans. Conclusions This study provides a comprehensive list of differentially expressed transcripts during wing development, revealing potential candidate genes that may be involved in regulating butterfly wing patterns. Some differentially expressed genes have no known homologs possibly representing genes unique to butterflies. Results from this study also indicate that development of nymphalid wing patterns may arise not only from melanin and ommochrome pigments but also the pteridine pigment pathway. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2586-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Rainfall seasonality can strongly influence biotic interactions by affecting host plant quality, and thus potentially regulating herbivore exposure to natural enemies. Plant defences are predicted to increase from dry to wet forests, rendering wet-forest caterpillars more vulnerable to parasitoids due to the slow-growth-high-mortality hypothesis. We collected and reared caterpillars from the understorey and trail edges of a wet forest and a seasonally dry forest to determine whether wet-forest caterpillars suffered a higher prevalence of parasitism and were less abundant than dry-forest caterpillars. In the two forests, caterpillar abundances (on average 8 h−1) and prevalence of parasitism (18%) were very similar regardless of feeding niche for both parasitism (27% versus 29% in shelter builders, and 16% versus 11% in external feeders) and caterpillar abundances (shelter builders: 1.42 versus 2.39, and external feeders: 8.27 versus 5.49 caterpillars h−1) in the dry and wet forests, respectively. A similar comparative analysis conducted in the canopy and understorey of the dry forest revealed a higher prevalence of parasitism in the canopy (43%) despite caterpillar densities similar to those in the understorey. Overall, shelter builders suffered higher parasitism than external feeders (32% versus 14.9%), and were attacked primarily by flies, whereas external feeders were more vulnerable to attack by parasitoid wasps.

Ecologists debate whether tropical insect diversity is better explained by higher plant diversity or by host plant species specialization. However, plant-herbivore studies are primarily based in lowland rainforests (RF) thus excluding topographical effects on biodiversity. We examined turnover in Eois (Geometridae) communities across elevation by studying elevational transects in Costa Rica and Ecuador. We found four distinct Eois communities existing across the elevational gradients. Herbivore diversity was highest in montane forests (MF), whereas host plant diversity was highest in lowland RF. This was correlated with higher specialization and species richness of Eois/host plant species we found in MF. Based on these relationships, Neotropical Eois richness was estimated to range from 313 (only lowland RF considered) to 2034 (considering variation with elevation). We conclude that tropical herbivore diversity and diet breadth covary significantly with elevation and urge the inclusion of montane ecosystems in host specialization and arthropod diversity estimates.

Here we describe the immature stages and ecological associations of Antirrhea adoptiva porphyrosticta Watkins, 1928 (Lepidoptera:Nymphalidae:Morphinae). The cloud forest bamboo, Chusquea scandens Kunth (Bambusoidea: Poaceae), serves as the larval food plant for this butterfly in eastern Ecuador, the first hostplant record for Antirrhea outside the family Arecaceae. The larvae of A. adoptiva porphyrosticta are superficially similar to those of other Antirrhea species. We also provide observations on adult and larval behavior. Caterpillars of this butterfly species are parasitized by tachinid flies, as well as by Ichneumonidae and a newly described braconid wasp.

Butterfly eyespots are complex morphological traits that can vary in size, shape and color composition even on the same wing surface. Homology among eyespots suggests they share a common developmental basis and function as an integrated unit in response to selection. Despite strong evidence of genetic integration, eyespots can also exhibit modularity or plasticity, indicating an underlying flexibility in pattern development. The extent to which particular eyespots or eyespot color elements exhibit modularity or integration is poorly understood, particularly following exposure to novel conditions. We used perturbation experiments to explore phenotypic correlations among different eyespots and their color elements on the ventral hindwing of V. cardui. Specifically, we identified which eyespots and eyespot features are most sensitive to perturbation by heat shock and injection of heparin-a cold shock mimic. For both treatments, the two central eyespots (3 + 4) were most affected by the experimental perturbations, whereas the outer eyespot border was more resistant to modification than the interior color elements. Overall, the individual color elements displayed a similar response to heat shock across all eyespots, but varied in their response to each other. Graphical modeling also revealed that although eyespots differ morphologically, regulation of eyespot size and colored elements appear to be largely integrated across the wing. Patterns of integration, however, were disrupted following heat shock, revealing that the strength of integration varies across the wing and is strongest between the two central eyespots. These findings support previous observations that document coupling between eyespots 3 + 4 in other nymphalid butterflies.

The extraordinary diversity of tropical herbivores may be linked to hostplant specialization driven in part by variation in pressure from natural enemies. We quantified levels of host-specificity and parasitoid attack for the specialist herbivore, Eois (Geometridae). The goals of this research were to examine: 1) whether Eois are specialized on the genus Piper (Piperaceae) and if hostplant specialization varies geographically; 2) whether Eois are equally vulnerable to parasitoid attack across different geographic regions and by the same parasitoid families; and 3) whether parasitism levels vary with precipitation and elevation. Based on over 15,000 rearings, we found Eois caterpillars feeding exclusively on Piper. However, we did not detect geographic differences in host-specificity; each Eois species fed on an average of two Piper species. Parasitism levels of Eois varied significantly with climate and topography; Eois were most vulnerable to parasitoid attack in moist versus dry and wet forests and at low versus high elevations. The diversity of parasitoid families reared from Eois was greater in Ecuador and Costa Rica than in Panama, where parasitoids were primarily in the family Braconidae. The quantitative evidence for host-specificity provides support for the hypothesis that Eois are specialized on Piper. Our results also reveal that Eois are exposed to a mosaic of potential selective pressures due to variation in parasitoid attack over a large spatial scale.

Six new species of the genus Distatrix Mason from Central and South America, D. loretta, D. xanadon, D. vigilis, D. pitillaensis, D. pandora Grinter, n. sp., and D. antirrheae Whitfield & Grinter, n. sp., are described from large-scale caterpillar inventory endeavors, mostly from the larvae of geometrid moths. Biological information and diagnostic features that distinguish these species from other previously described Distatrix, especially those from the Neotropical region, are provided; and the first key to New World species is presented. The new discoveries expand our knowledge of the World's widespread Distatrix fauna by about a third, suggesting that similar survey efforts in other poorly sampled regions will reveal numerous additional undescribed species.

Insect outbreaks are expected to increase in frequency and intensity with projected changes in global climate through direct effects of climate change on insect populations and through disruption of community interactions. Although there is much concern about mean changes in global climate, the impact of climatic variability itself on species interactions has been little explored. Here, we compare caterpillar–parasitoid interactions across a broad gradient of climatic variability and find that the combined data in 15 geographically dispersed databases show a decrease in levels of parasitism as climatic variability increases. The dominant contribution to this pattern by relatively specialized parasitoid wasps suggests that climatic variability impairs the ability of parasitoids to track host populations. Given the important role of parasitoids in regulating insect herbivore populations in natural and managed systems, we predict an increase in the frequency and intensity of herbivore outbreaks through a disruption of enemy–herbivore dynamics as climates become more variable.