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NorSOOP (Norwegian Ships of Opportunity Program) is a national research infrastructure which began in 2018 and is financed by the Research Council of Norway. Its main goal is to build a network of ships of opportunity capable of providing marine and atmospheric observations that are relevant for improving our understanding of coastal and oceanic ecosystems and also covers a subset of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) essential ocean variables. NorSOOP ships of opportunity are part of the European GOOS (EuroGOOS) FerryBox Task Team and have contributed to various projects focused on marine ecosystem change, carbon dioxide/ocean acidification, pollution/microplastics, and remote sensing – at the local/municipality, national, and European level (including Horizon 2020 JERICO-S3, NAUTILOS, MINKE, and EuroSea projects). The objectives of NorSOOP include: (1) upgrade existing FerryBox installations and establish new ships of opportunity in Norwegian waters and the Arctic and North Atlantic; (2) provide and support high-quality and cost-efficient basic and applied ocean and atmosphere research; (3) foster innovation and growth for maritime, environmental sensor, and aquaculture industries. This talk will provide the latest developments, installations, and results as well as updates of the past and future activities within the project.

This protocol was established for the Nordic Blue Carbon Project (2017–2020) for tracking the presence of kelp DNA in marine sediments, providing preliminary quantitative information on the original kelp biomass. Nordic blue forests are coastal vegetated habitats, such as kelp forests, eelgrass meadows and rockweed beds, that are important natural sinks for carbon and thereby climate regulation. They also play an important role in climate adaptation. Simultaneously, blue forests are at high risk from climate change and other human impacts, such as eutrophication and coastal development. The advent of eDNA methods for tracking animal or vegetal organisms in water or sediment matrices, has enabled not only geographical detection without collection of the organism but also temporal study of their presence in dated sediment cores. The fate of eDNA and its persistence in the environment is intimately related to its biophysical surroundings. eDNA entrapped in sediments may be preserved on long time scales, up to centuries, enabling historical tracking of the presence of a species on a site. The present protocol was developed for tracking eDNA of a predominant Norwegian kelp species, Laminaria hyperborea, in dated marine sediment cores. This approach enables confirmation of species specific contribution to carbon sequestration in an effort to evaluate marine sediments operating as carbon sinks. This work was financed by the Norwegian Environment Agency (Miljødirektoratet) contract #17080044 and published in a NIVA report ISBN 978-82-577-7384-7, Norwegian Environment Agency Report M-2090|2021, Blue Carbon eDNA – A novel eDNA method to trace macroalgae carbon in marine sediments. .

This report will compile the outcomes of the work performed in Task 2.1 (Political and societal drivers and requirements), informing on the potential of evolving trends in technological progress in advancing contemporary marine environmental monitoring practices and examining the role any resulting changes in established operating paradigms could play in shaping the socio-political framework defining ocean observing needs at the global and European levels

Coastal ecosystems are of high ecological and socioeconomic importance and are strongly influenced by processes from land, sea, and human activities. In this study, we present physical, chemical, and biological observations over two consecutive years from three study regions along the Norwegian coast that represent a broad latitudinal gradient in catchment and oceanographic conditions (∼59–69°N): outer Oslofjord/southern Norway, Runde/western Norway, and Malangen/northern Norway. The observations included river monitoring, coastal monitoring, and sensor-equipped ships of opportunity (“FerryBox”). The riverine discharge and transports were an order of magnitude higher, and the spatiotemporal extent of this freshwater influence was larger in the coastal region in southern Norway, compared to western and northern Norway. The southern Norway coastal waters had consistently high dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and chromophoric dissolved organic matter (cDOM) fluorescence year-round, connected to the large influence of local riverine input and likely also advected riverine run-off and mixing with water masses from the southern North Sea and Baltic Sea. Meanwhile, the western and northern study regions were more sheltered and characterized by more episodic riverine input of freshwater, DOC, cDOM, and nutrients. The timing of the spring phytoplankton bloom in all three regions generally preceded the periods of high riverine input, which suggested that while the winter nutrient reserve was sufficient to fuel the spring bloom, the input of nutrients during the spring flood could sustain the spring bloom or the input of suspended matter, and DOC/cDOM could result in light limitation of the bloom. This article summarizes the impact of riverine input on three diverse coastal systems in terms timing and duration, as well as the potential consequences for ecosystem function especially as related to rising terrestrial organic matter input into coastal regions over the last decades and the projected increase due to climate change.

Nordic blue forests are coastal vegetated habitats, such as kelp forests, eelgrass meadows and rockweed beds, that are important natural sinks for carbon and thereby climate regulation. They also play an important role in climate adaptation. Simultaneously, blue forests are at high risk from climate change and other human impacts, such as eutrophication and coastal development. This report presents the main findings of the Nordic Blue Carbon Project (2017–2020) on the areal distribution and carbon budget of blue forests (kelp forests, seagrass meadows and rockweed beds) in the Nordic region. We have identified the main ecosystem effects of climate change and other human pressures on Nordic blue forests, tested the effect of moderating some of these pressures, and give scientific advice on management measures aimed at safeguarding these important coastal ecosystems for the future.

Declining atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition, through reduction in the direct input of inorganic N, may result in less inorganic N being leached from soils to freshwaters (dissolved inorganic N = DIN). Declining sulphur deposition, through reducing the ionic strength in soil water, increases the solubility and mobility of organic soil compounds and may result in increased leaching of organically bound N to freshwaters (total organic N = TON). It is unknown to which extent these two independents and opposing trends, i.e. DIN decline versus TON increase, may affect the nutrient balance (load, stoichiometry) of river water draining into coastal zones. By combining long-term atmospheric and riverine monitoring data of the five major Norwegian rivers draining to the Skagerrak coast, we show that over the past 27 years (1990–2017) river water nutrient composition, and specifically N stoichiometry has been steadily shifting from inorganic to organic fractions, with correlations to changes in human pressures (air pollution), but especially climate (precipitation, temperature, discharge). This shift in nutrient quality may have large consequences on the nutrient cycling in both freshwater and coastal ecosystems and illustrates the complex interactions of multiple stressors (here: N deposition, S deposition, and climate change) on aquatic ecosystems.

Norway has a very long and varied coastline which includes archipelagos, beaches, mountains, and the famous fjords. Its length together with topography and, not least, the Gulf Stream govern its climate, which appears to be becoming both warmer and wetter. This precipitation results in large inputs of freshwater into the surrounding seas. Important habitats include kelp forests, seagrass beds, soft substrates, and the world’s largest cold-water corals reefs. The importance of the diversity and ecosystem function of these habitats is becoming increasingly understood although they are all challenged by anthropogenic pressures, not least climate change. Despite being relatively sparsely populated Norwegian cities and several major industries may exert considerable pressure on the marine environment. These include the oil and gas industry and aquaculture, both of which are extremely important to the Norwegian economy. In addition, capture fisheries remain important. Overall trends in the input of pollutants to coastal waters are largely downward (metals and organics), with a few exceptions, noticeably some increases in nutrients in the south due to changes in climate. A similar overall decline in pollutants in coastal marine organisms is also apparent, with a reduction in concentrations in recent years. Many contaminated sites persist however, including inner harbors and areas which have historically received industrial discharges. Consumption advices for seafood persist at many of these sites. There is also some evidence of increasing mercury concentrations in some areas, such as Oslofjord. Norway enforces most European and other international agreements regarding the protection and management of marine ecosystems, and has now has four national marine parks, all in the South of the country, as well as several other protected areas.

What is the temporal variability of the elemental stoichiometry of marine microbial communities across ocean regions? To answer this question, we present an analysis of environmental conditions, particulate organic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus concentrations and their ratios across 20 time series (3–25 years duration) representing estuarine, coastal, and open ocean environments. The majority of stations showed significant seasonal oscillations in particulate organic elemental concentrations and ratios. However, shorter-term changes contributed most to overall variance in particulate organic matter concentrations and ratios. We found a correlation between the seasonal oscillations of environmental conditions and elemental ratios at many coastal but not open ocean and estuarine stations. C:N peaked near the seasonal temperature minimum and nutrient maximum, but some stations showed other seasonal links. C:N ratios declined with time over the respective observation periods at all open ocean and estuarine stations as well as at five coastal station but increased at the nine other coastal stations. C:P (but not N:P) declined slightly at Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study but showed large significant increases at Hawaii Ocean Time-series and Arendal stations. The relationships between long-term changes in environmental conditions and particulate organic matter concentrations or ratios were ambiguous, but interactions between changes in temperature and nutrient availability were important. Overall, our analysis demonstrates significant changes in elemental ratios at long-term and seasonal time scales across regions, but the underlying mechanisms are currently unclear. Thus, we need to better understand the detailed mechanisms driving the elemental composition of marine microbial ecosystems in order to predict how oceans will respond to environmental changes.

Studying more than 3600 observations of particulate organic carbon (POC) and particulate organic nitrogen (PON), we evaluate the applicability of the classic Redfield C:N ratio (6.6) and the recently proposed Sterner ratio (8.3) for the Arctic Ocean and pan-Arctic shelves. The confidence intervals for C:N ranged from 6.43 to 8.82, while the average C:N ratio for all observations was 7.4. In general, neither the Redfield or Sterner ratios were applicable, with the Redfield ratio being too low and the Sterner ratio too high. On a regional basis, all northern high latitude regions had a C:N ratio significantly higher than the Redfield ratio, except the Arctic Ocean (6.6), Chukchi (6.4) and East Siberian (6.5) Seas. The latter two regions were influenced by nutrient-rich Pacific waters, and had a high fraction of autotrophic (i.e. algal-derived) material. The C:N ratios of the Laptev (7.9) and Kara (7.5) Seas were high, and had larger contributions of terrigenous material. The highest C:N ratios were in the North Water (8.7) and Northeast Water (8.0) polynyas, and these regions were more similar to the Sterner ratio. The C:N ratio varied between regions, and was significantly different between the Atlantic (6.7) and Arctic (7.9) influenced regions of the Barents Sea, while the Atlantic dominated regions (Norwegian, Greenland and Atlantic Barents Seas) were similar (6.7–7). All observations combined, and most individual regions, showed a pattern of decreasing C:N ratios with increasing seston concentrations. This meta-analysis has important implications for ecosystem modelling, as it demonstrated the striking temporal and spatial variability in C:N ratios and challenges the common assumption of a constant C:N ratio. The non-constant stoichiometry was believed to be caused by variable contributions of autotrophs, heterotrophs and detritus to seston, and a significant decrease in C:N ratios with increasing Chlorophyll a concentrations supports this view. This study adds support to the use of a power function model, where the exponent is system-specific, but we suggest a general Arctic relationship, where POC = 7.4 PON0.89.

Due to severe alterations of the physical conditions in Arctic ice-covered ecosystems (decrease of sea ice, thinning of the ozone layer), the underwater light climate is changing both with respect to its intensity and spectral composition. It is commonly observed that phytoplankton respond differently to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm) and ultraviolet radiation (UVR, 280–400 nm) in terms of their elemental stoichiometry, where high levels of PAR tend to increase the ratios of carbon to phosphorus (C:P), while UVR has the opposite effect. Since this has importance not only for elemental cycling and P-sequestration, but also for the algal food quality for grazers, it is of considerable interest to reveal the role of different spectral regimes of elemental uptake and stoichiometry. There are ambiguous evidence as to whether UVR stimulates or reduces the uptake of inorganic P, and to test this for three common, arctic marine diatoms; Porosira glacialis, Thalassiosira sp. Synedropsis hyperborean, we performed 33P-uptake assays with exposure to either PAR alone or PAR + UVR. Neither of the species showed strong P-uptake responses to UVR exposure, yet the two former species had a negative trend, while Synedropsis, showed a slight increase in its P-uptake under moderate UVR exposure. The latter species also had a remarkably fast P-uptake kinetics. These mixed results indicate a species-specific complex role of P in the algal response to UVR induced light stress, where not only species affinities but also ambient conditions may yield different outcomes.

This study evaluates long-term mean fluxes of carbon and nutrients to the upper 100 m of the Iceland Sea. The study utilises hydro-chemical data from the Iceland Sea time series station (68.00° N, 12.67° W), for the years between 1993 and 2006. By comparing data of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and nutrients in the surface layer (upper 100 m), and a sub-surface layer (100–200 m), we calculate monthly deficits in the surface, and use these to deduce the long-term mean surface layer fluxes that affect the deficits: vertical mixing, horizontal advection, air–sea exchange, and biological activity. The deficits show a clear seasonality with a minimum in winter, when the mixed layer is at the deepest, and a maximum in early autumn, when biological uptake has removed much of the nutrients. The annual vertical fluxes of DIC and nitrate amounts to 2.9 ± 0.5 and 0.45 ± 0.09 mol m−2 yr−1, respectively, and the annual air–sea uptake of atmospheric CO2 is 4.4 ± 1.1 mol C m−2 yr−1. The biologically driven changes in DIC during the year relates to net community production (NCP), and the net annual NCP corresponds to export production, and is here calculated as 7.3 ± 1.0 mol C m−2 yr−1. The typical, median C : N ratio during the period of net community uptake is 9.0, and clearly higher than the Redfield ratio, but is varying during the season. &nbsp

A 20-year time series from the Norwegian Coastal Current was explored to examine the effects of advected nutrient supply from the southern North Sea and of large-scale climate variability on hydrography, nutrients and particulate organic matter (seston), focusing on trends in the January to April period in the upper layers (0–30 m). The interannual variability in hydrography, nutrients and seston was correlated with the NAO index, mostly through the inflow of nutrient-rich waters from the southern North Sea. There was a long-term decrease in nutrient concentrations, which according to a water mass analysis followed a reduction in nutrients advected from the German Bight and southern North Sea. The concentrations of carbon and nitrogen in seston, dissolved organic nitrogen and the estimated fraction of non-autotrophic material increased significantly and non-linearly through a sharp transition between 1998 and 2000, and have remained at this level since. Humic coagulation was suggested as the mechanism behind the increase in the non-autotrophic fraction of seston, which could be connected with the reported “darkening” of the coastal Skagerrak and Baltic Sea. Concurrent with the thresholds in suspended material, a decimation of the sugar kelp forest and recruitment failure of key carnivorous fish was reported for the same region, suggesting that a regime shift took place in the early 2000s in the coastal waters of the Norwegian Skagerrak. Our data suggests that the effects of increased freshwater runoff, especially the increased inputs of terrestrial-derived, humic material, could play an important role in the observed, coastal responses.

Seston is suspended particulate organic matter, comprising a mixture of autotrophic, heterotrophic and detrital material. Despite variable proportions of these components, marine seston often exhibits relatively small deviations from the Redfield ratio (C:N:P = 106:16:1). Two time-series from the Norwegian shelf in Skagerrak are used to identify drivers of the seasonal variation in seston elemental ratios. An ordination identified water mass characteristics and bloom dynamics as the most important drivers for determining C:N, while changes in nutrient concentrations and biomass were most important for the C:P and N:P relationships. There is no standardized method for determining the functional composition of seston and the fractions of POC, PON and PP associated with phytoplankton, therefore any such information has to be obtained by indirect means. In this study, a generalized linear model was used to differentiate between the live autotrophic and non-autotrophic sestonic fractions, and for both stations the non-autotrophic fractions dominated with respective annual means of 76 and 55%. This regression model approach builds on assumptions (e.g. constant POC:Chl-a ratio) and the robustness of the estimates were explored with a bootstrap analysis. In addition the autotrophic percentage calculated from the statistical model was compared with estimated phytoplankton carbon, and the two independent estimates of autotrophic percentage were comparable with similar seasonal cycles. The estimated C:nutrient ratios of live autotrophs were, in general, lower than Redfield, while the non-autotrophic C:nutrient ratios were higher than the live autotrophic ratios and above, or close to, the Redfield ratio. This is due to preferential remineralization of nutrients, and the P content mainly governed the difference between the sestonic fractions. Despite the seasonal variability in seston composition and the generally low contribution of autotrophic biomass, the variation observed in the total seston ratios was low compared to the variation found in dissolved and particulate pools. Sestonic C:N:P ratios close to the Redfield ratios should not be used as an indicator of phytoplankton physiological state, but could instead reflect varying contributions of sestonic fractions that sum up to an elemental ratio close to Redfield.

Seston is suspended particulate organic matter, comprising a mixture of autotrophic, heterotrophic and detrital material. Despite variable proportions of these components, marine seston often exhibits relatively small deviations from the Redfield ratio (C:N:P = 106:16:1). Two time-series from the Norwegian shelf in Skagerrak are used to identify drivers of the seasonal variation in seston elemental ratios. An ordination identified water mass characteristics and bloom dynamics as the most important drivers for determining C:N, while changes in nutrient concentrations and biomass were most important for the C:P and N:P relationships. There is no standardized method for determining the functional composition of seston and the fractions of POC, PON and PP associated with phytoplankton, therefore any such information has to be obtained by indirect means. In this study, a generalized linear model was used to differentiate between the live autotrophic and non-autotrophic sestonic fractions, and for both stations the non-autotrophic fractions dominated with respective annual means of 76 and 55%. This regression model approach builds on assumptions (e.g. constant POC:Chl-a ratio) and the robustness of the estimates were explored with a bootstrap analysis. In addition the autotrophic percentage calculated from the statistical model was compared with estimated phytoplankton carbon, and the two independent estimates of autotrophic percentage were comparable with similar seasonal cycles. The estimated C:nutrient ratios of live autotrophs were, in general, lower than Redfield, while the non-autotrophic C:nutrient ratios were higher than the live autotrophic ratios and above, or close to, the Redfield ratio. This is due to preferential remineralization of nutrients, and the P content mainly governed the difference between the sestonic fractions. Despite the seasonal variability in seston composition and the generally low contribution of autotrophic biomass, the variation observed in the total seston ratios was low compared to the variation found in dissolved and particulate pools. Sestonic C:N:P ratios close to the Redfield ratios should not be used as an indicator of phytoplankton physiological state, but could instead reflect varying contributions of sestonic fractions that sum up to an elemental ratio close to Redfield.

Vegetated coastal and marine habitats in the Nordic region include salt marshes, eelgrass meadows and, in particular, brown macroalgae (kelp forests and rockweed beds). Such habitats contribute to storage of organic carbon (Blue Carbon – BC) and support coastal protection, biodiversity and water quality. Protection and restoration of these habitats therefore have the potential to deliver climate change mitigation and co-benefits. Here we present the existing knowledge on Nordic BC habitats in terms of habitat area, C-stocks and sequestration rates, co-benefits, policies and management status to inspire a coherent Nordic BC roadmap. The area extent of BC habitats in the region is incompletely assessed, but available information sums up to 1,440 km2 salt marshes, 1,861 (potentially 2,735) km2 seagrass meadows, and 16,532 km2 (potentially 130,735 km2, including coarse Greenland estimates) brown macroalgae, yielding a total of 19,833 (potentially 134,910) km2. Saltmarshes and seagrass meadows have experienced major declines over the past century, while macroalgal trends are more diverse. Based on limited salt marsh data, sediment C-stocks average 3,311 g Corg m-2 (top 40-100 cm) and sequestration rates average 142 g Corg m-2 yr-1. Eelgrass C-stocks average 2,414 g Corg m-2 (top 25 cm) and initial data for sequestration rates range 5-33 g Corg m-2, quantified for one Greenland site and one short term restoration. For Nordic brown macroalgae, peer-reviewed estimates of sediment C-stock and sequestration are lacking. Overall, the review reveals substantial Nordic BC-stocks, but highlights that evidence is still insufficient to provide a robust estimate of all Nordic BC-stocks and sequestration rates. Needed are better quantification of habitat area, C-stocks and fluxes, particularly for macroalgae, as well as identification of target areas for BC management. The review also points to directives and regulations protecting Nordic marine vegetation, and local restoration initiatives with potential to increase C-sequestration but underlines that increased coordination at national and Nordic scales and across sectors is needed. We propose a Nordic BC roadmap for science and management to maximize the potential of BC habitats to mitigate climate change and support coastal protection, biodiversity and additional ecosystem functions.