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Marine organisms produce a diverse range of toxins and bioactive peptides to support predation, competition, and defense. The peptide repertoires of stony corals (order Scleractinia) remain relatively understudied despite the presence of tentacles used for predation and defense that are likely to contain a range of bioactive compounds. Here, we show that a tentacle extract from the mushroom coral, Heliofungia actiniformis, contains numerous peptides with a range of molecular weights analogous to venom profiles from species such as cone snails. Using NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry we characterized a 12-residue peptide (Hact-1) with a new sequence (GCHYTPFGLICF) and well-defined β-hairpin structure stabilized by a single disulfide bond. The sequence is encoded within the genome of the coral and expressed in the polyp body tissue. The structure present is common among toxins and venom peptides, but Hact-1 does not show activity against select examples of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria or a range of ion channels, common properties of such peptides. Instead, it appears to have a limited effect on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, but the ecological function of the peptide remains unknown. The discovery of this peptide from H. actiniformis is likely to be the first of many from this and related species.

The free-living solitary mushroom coral Heliofungia actiniformis resembles sea anemones by having large, fleshy polyps with long tentacles, which provide shelter to symbiotic organisms. Commensal shrimps are well studied, but little is known about associated fish fauna. Therefore, the associated fauna of 118 coral polyps of H. actiniformis was examined at a depth range of 4–28 m in the Davao Gulf, Philippines. The distribution of associated fishes and symbiotic invertebrates highly depended on the size of the coral host: Large corals polyps (>18 cm) supported co-inhabiting fishes and commensal shrimps, medium-sized polyps (diameter 5–18 cm) hosted either fishes or shrimps, and small coral polyps (

The poorly regulated aquarium trade in live corals poses yet another threat to fragile coral reef ecosystems. The Indonesian authorities routinely allocate some of the highest trade quotas in South Sulawesi to Heliofungia actiniformis despite a lack of data on the impacts of current collection practices on this species. Semi-structured interviews with fishermen and in situ surveys revealed a size-selective fishery towards small polyps. This resulted in a shift of size-frequency distributions, and reduced overall abundances at harvested sites. Total mortality rates calculated using a catch curve approach at harvested sites were significantly higher compared to those known from unharvested sites for polyps sized 0–11 cm. Recorded exploitation rates were 0.1 and 0.7 for polyps sized 0–4 cm and 4–11 cm respectively. The application of a utility per recruit approach, calculated with a Thompson and Bell model, revealed maximum potential economic yield to occur at a size of 5 cm, corresponding to an age of 5 years. This is 5 years before the attainment of reproductive maturity, and 15 years before the attainment of maximum biomass yield per recruit. A predictive model indicated the need for a 5 cm size limit to curb economic overfishing, and protect attached anthocauli stalks capable of maintaining the trade through continued asexual reproduction. In addition, a reduction of exploitation rates for polyps in the 4–11 cm size bracket to 0.5 is urgently needed. Calculations reveal that this would in fact be possible without lowering current profits. Achieving long term sustainability will in addition to a reduction of harvest quotas necessitate an effective protection of spawning stocks through stricter enforcement of existing marine protected areas.

The fungiid Heliofungia actiniformis is one of the most popular coral species in the Indonesian aquarium trade, yet information on the biology of this species is limited. H. actiniformis growth rates, population size–frequency distributions and the seasonality of recruitment rates were measured at three replicate sites in the Spermonde Archipelago, South Sulawesi. Growth and population models were applied to estimate coral ages, mortality rates and the size of maximum yield. Growth decreased linearly with polyp size. High numbers of attached polyps budded from clusters of stalks attached to the reef, with each cluster originating from the settlement of a sexually produced larva. Neither the settlement of sexual recruits, nor their asexual budding, showed seasonality. The overall population structure reflected the high mortality rates of young, attached polyps (Z = 0.5–0.6 yr−1), and the much lower mortalities of free-living individuals (Z = 0.05–0.08 yr−1). There were no statistically significant differences in overall mortality rates and the age–frequency distributions of polyps aged 0–15 years between the sites. Differences in the abundance of large H. actiniformis polyps at the three replicate sites were correlated with percent cover of coral rubble. The application of the Beverton and Holt model revealed the highest biomass per H. actiniformis recruit was 12 cm, corresponding to a polyp age of 20 years.

The fungiid Heliofungia actiniformis is one of the most popular scleractinian coral species in the growing live aquarium trade, with the majority of specimens ori- ginating in Indonesia. Details on population connectivity may potentially provide important information with regards to harvest management efforts. Genetic structure was examined, using ribosomal ITS1, 5.8S and partial ITS2 sequences on a small scale among populations in the Spermonde Archipelago, South Sulawesi (up to 65 km distance, Ust = 0.09), and on a large scale throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago (up to 2,900 km distance, Ust = 0.26). Significant genetic structuring was found at both scales. Within the Spermonde Archipelago isolation by distance as well as local oceanographic features shaped patterns of genetic connectivity. On the large scale, the data revealed genetically distinct populations in Tomini Bay, New Guinea and the Thousand Islands near Jakarta, and a lack of genetic differentiation among populations lying close to or directlyin the path of the Indonesian throughflow: from the central Visayas to the Flores Sea (Uct = 0.32). Whilst the influence of both historical and present day processes on genetic structuring of H. actini- formis populations was revealed, large scale results further emphasised the importance of oceanographic dynamics on larval dispersal patterns in this species. Potential for larval input from surrounding populations, and the increased vulnerability of upstream as well as isolated populations should be taken into consideration when setting future harvest quotas.

Heliofungia actiniformis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833) (Fig. 5A) Heliofungia actiniformis – Chou et al., 1987: 47; Turak & DeVantier, 2011: 131. This free-living species is common at Brunei: recorded at 13 out of 17 sites (Table 2)., Published as part of Hoeksema, Bert W. & Lane, David J. W., 2014, The mushroom coral fauna (Scleractinia: Fungiidae) of Brunei Darussalam (South China Sea) and its relation to the Coral Triangle, pp. 566-580 in Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 62 on page 573, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5354576, {"references":["Quoy JRC & Gaimard JP (1833) Zoophytes. In: Dumont d'Urville JSC: Voyage de decouvertes de 1 ' Astrolabe, execute par ordre du Roi, pendant les annees 1826 - 29, sous le commandement de M. J. Dumont d'Urville. Zoologie, 4: 175 - 254, pls. 14 - 20.","Chou LM, De Silva MWRN & White AT (1987) Coral reefs, algae and seagrasses In: Chua TE, Chou LM & Sadorra MSM (eds.) The coastal environment profile of Brunei Darussalam: resource assessment and management issues. ICLARM Technical Reports, 18: 43 - 58.","Turak E & DeVantier L (2011) Field guide to the reef-building corals of Brunei Darussalam. Fisheries Department, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources, Government of Brunei Darussalam, 256 pp."]}

The biological or physical mechanisms that cause differences in the susceptibility of corals to thermal stress are not well defined (Wooldridge 2014). Understanding coral responses to thermal stress and tolerance mechanisms is important for predicting how corals will fare with elevated ocean temperatures. Using time-lapse photography, we observed the scleractinian coral Heliofungia actiniformis employ pulsed inflation to expel symbionts while under thermal stress...

The evolution of symbiotic relationships involving reef corals has had much impact on tropical marine biodiversity. Because of their endosymbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) corals can grow fast in tropical shallow seas where they form reefs that supply food, substrate and shelter for other organisms. Many coral symbionts are host-specific, depending on particular coral species for their existence. Some of these animals have become popular objects for underwater photographers and aquarists, whereas others are hardly noticed or considered pests. Loss of a single coral host species also leads to the disappearance of some of its associated fauna. In the present study we show which mushroom corals (Scleractinia: Fungiidae) are known to act as hosts for other organisms, such as acoel flatworms, copepods, barnacles, gall crabs, pontoniine shrimps, mytilid bivalves, epitoniid snails, coralliophilid snails, fish and certain types of zooxanthellae. Several of these associated organisms appear to be host-specific whereas other species are generalists and not even necessarily restricted to fungiid hosts.Heliofungia actiniformisis one of the most hospitable coral species known with a recorded associated fauna consisting of at least 23 species. The availability of a phylogeny reconstruction of the Fungiidae enables comparisons of closely related species of mushroom corals regarding their associated fauna. Application of a phylogenetic ecological analysis indicates that the presence or absence of associated organisms is evolutionarily derived or habitat-induced. Some associations appear to be restricted to certain evolutionary lineages within the Fungiidae, whereas the absence of associated species may be determined by ecomorphological traits of the host corals, such as coral dimensions (coral diameter and thickness) and polyp shape (tentacle size).

Inorganic nutrients play a critical role in determining benthic community structure in tropical seas. This study examined the impact of adding inorganic nutrients (ammonium and phosphate) on the isotopic composition of 2 reef-building corals, Pocillopora damicornis and Heliofungia actiniformis, on the southern Great Barrier Reef. The addition of elevated nutrients to patch reefs that pond at low tide did not perturb the C:N ratio of either species or their symbiotic dinoflagellates. The C:N ratios were significantly higher in material extracted from the skeleton (14.8 +/- 1.50 and 10.8 +/- 1.42) than either host (7.6 +/- 0.87 and 6.0 +/- 0.71) or symbiotic dinoflagellates (5.7 +/- 0.48 and 6.9 +/- 0.66) (P. damicornis and H. actiniformis respectively; 95 confidence intervals). The ratio of acquired N to background N suggests that the added dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) accounted for 50 to 100% of total nitrogen within the tissues of P. damicornis and H. actiniformis at the end of the experiment. The addition of the isotopically depleted nutrients (delta(15) N = 0parts per thousand) to patch reefs significantly decreased delta(15)N from control values of between 3 and 4 to values to below 1 in the case of all compartments, while delta(13)C values were relatively unresponsive to nutrient treatments. These findings suggest that coral delta(15)N has the potential to provide a historical record of the delta(15)N of dissolved nitrogen surrounding reef-building corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates.

Biominerals and metals of intertidal corals of two species (Heliofungia actiniformis, Quoy and Gaimard; Galaxea fascicularis, Linnaeus), collected from the Iriomote Island of Ryukyu, were examined with an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES). Twelve elements were detectable in the coralline skeletons dissected radially along the growth axis. The relative content (RC) of Hg periodically fluctuated and was minimum at the hollow sites of the coralline slab of Heliofungia sp., corresponding to the cyclic growth. There were two types of elements: constant elements and variable elements along the growth axis. RCs of Ca, Mg, Al, Si, and P were nearly constant. RCs of Fe, Mn, Cu, and Ba were variable, but not as regularly changed as Hg. There were positive mass correlations of Hg to Mn, Cu and Zn, but not to Ba and Fe. In contrast, these relationships were not prominent and were likely degraded by aging in the skeleton of Galaxea sp., suggesting a different mode from that of the Heliofungia sp.

The “Hamopontonia corallicola” Bruce, 1970 species complex is partly revised. The type species of the genus, H. corallicola Bruce, 1970, is redescribed based on material from Northern Australia. Additionally, two new species of the genus associatedwith hard corals are described from Lizard Island, the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Hamopontonia fungicola sp. nov. isassociated with fungiid coral Heliofungia actiniformis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833) and H. physogyra sp. nov. is associated withcaryophyllid coral Physogyra lichtensteini Milne-Edwards & Haime, 1851. Both species clearly differ from their congeners indistinctive coloration and morphological features. A differential key and remarks on coloration of all described species of the genus are provided.

There is concern of the effects of Produced Formation Water (PFW, an effluent of the offshore oil and gas industry) on temperate/tropical marine organisms of the North West Shelf (NWS) of Australia. Little is known of the effects of PFW on tropical marine organisms, especially keystone species. Exposing the coral Plesiastrea versipora to a range (3–50% v/v) of PFW from Harriet A oil platform resulted in a reduction in photochemical efficiency of the symbiotic dinoflagellate algae in hospite (in the coral tissues), assessed as a decrease in the ratio of variable fluorescence (Fv) to maximal fluorescence (Fm) measured using chlorophyll fluorescence techniques. Significant differences were noted at PFW concentrations >12.5% (v/v). In corals where Fv/Fm was significantly lowered by PFW exposure, significant discolouration of the tissues occurred in a subsequent 4-day observation period. The discolouration (coral bleaching) was caused by a loss of the symbiotic dinoflagellates from the tissues, a known sublethal stress response of corals. PFW caused a significant decrease in Fv/Fm in symbiotic dinoflagellates freshly isolated from the coral Heliofungia actiniformis at 6.25% PFW, slightly lower than the studies in hospite. Corals exposed to lower PFW concentrations (range 0.1%–10% PFW v/v) for longer periods (8 days) showed no decrease in Fv/Fm, discolouration, loss of symbiotic dinoflagellates or changes in gross photosynthesis or respiration (measured using O2 exchange techniques). The study demonstrates minor toxicity of PFW from Harriet A oil platform to corals and their symbiotic algae.