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Background: Differences in nutrient intakes by urbanization level in the Unites States is not well understood., Objective: Describe, by urbanization level: 1) intake of protein, fiber, percent of energy from added sugars (AS) and saturated fat (SF), calcium, iron, potassium, sodium, and vitamin D; 2) the percent of the population meeting nutrient recommendations., Methods: Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls from 23,107 participants aged 2 y and over from the 2013-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys were analyzed. Usual intakes were estimated, and linear regression models adjusted for age, sex, race and Hispanic origin, and whether family income met the 130% threshold examined intake differences by urbanization levels-large urban areas (LUA), small to medium metro areas (SMMA), and rural areas (RA)., Results: A small percentage of the population met the nutrient recommendations, except for protein (92.8%) and iron (70.5%). A higher percentage of the population met recommendations than SMMA and RA for fiber (11.8% compared with 8.1% and 5.3%, P < 0.001), AS (40.2% compared with 33.4% and 31.3%, P < 0.001), SF (26.8% compared with 18.2% and 20.1%, P < 0.001), and potassium (31.5% compared with 25.5% and 22.0%, P < 0.001). Mean protein intake were also higher in LUA than RA (80.0 g compared with 77.7 g, P = 0.003) and fiber intake higher in LUA than SMMA (16.5 g compared with 15.9 g, P = 0.01) and RA (16.5 g compared with 15.2 g, P = 0.001). In addition, contributions to energy intake were lower in LUA than SMMA for AS (11.3% compared with 12.0%, P < 0.001) and SF (11.5% compared with 11.7%, P < 0.001), and for LUA than RA for AS (11.3% compared with 12.9%, P < 0.001) and SF (11.5% compared with 11.8%, P < 0.001)., Conclusions: RA had some markers of poorer diet quality-lower protein and fiber intake and higher AS intake-compared with LUA, and these differences persisted in adjusted regression models. These results may inform public health efforts to address health disparities by urbanization levels in the Unites States., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Our objective was to convene interdisciplinary experts from government, academia, and industry to develop a Research Roadmap to identify research priorities about processed food intake and risk for obesity and cardiometabolic diseases (CMD) among United States populations. We convened attendees at various career stages with diverse viewpoints in the field. We held a "Food Processing Primer" to build foundational knowledge of how and why foods are processed, followed by presentations about how processed foods may affect energy intake, obesity, and CMD risk. Breakout groups discussed potential mechanistic and confounding explanations for associations between processed foods and obesity and CMD risk. Facilitators created research questions (RQs) based on key themes from discussions. Different breakout groups convened to discuss what is known and unknown for each RQ and to develop sub-RQs to address gaps. Workshop attendees focused on ultra-processed foods (UPFs; Nova Group 4) because the preponderance of evidence is based on this classification system. Yet, heterogeneity and subjectivity in UPF classification was a challenge for RQ development. The 6 RQs were: 1) What objective methods or measures could further categorize UPFs, considering food processing, formulation, and the interaction of the two? 2) How can exposure assessment of UPF intake be improved? 3) Does UPF intake influence risk for obesity or CMDs, independent of diet quality? 4) What, if any, attributes of UPFs influence ingestive behavior and contribute to excess energy intake? 5) What, if any, attributes of UPFs contribute to clinically meaningful metabolic responses? 6) What, if any, external environmental factors lead people to consume high amounts of UPFs? Uncertainty and complexity around UPF intake warrant further complementary and interdisciplinary causal, mechanistic, and methodological research related to obesity and CMD risk to understand the utility of applying classification by degree of processing to foods in the United States., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Time spent on screens and adiposity change rapidly from childhood to adolescence, with differences by gender and race/ethnicity., Objective: Apply time-varying effect models (TVEMs) to a nationally representative sample of youth to identify the age ranges when the cross-sectional associations between television viewing, computer use, and adiposity are significant., Methods: Data from 8 to 15-year-olds (n = 3593) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2011-2018) were extracted. TVEMs estimated the associations between television viewing, computer use, and fat mass index as dynamic functions of the participants' age, stratified by gender and race/ethnicity., Results: TVEMs revealed age-specific statistically significant associations that differed by gender and race/ethnicity. Notably, computer use was related to higher adiposity in non-Hispanic White females aged 9.3-11.4 years (slope β-range: 0.1-0.2) and in non-Hispanic Black females older than 14.8 years (β-range: 0.1-0.5). In males, these age windows were 13.5-15.0 years (non-Hispanic White, β-range: 0.1-0.2), 11.4-13.0 years (non-Hispanic Black, β-range: 0.1-0.14), and older than 13.0 years (Hispanic, β-range: 0.1-0.4)., Conclusions: More research during the specific age ranges in the demographic subgroups identified here could increase our understanding of tailored interventions in youth., (© 2023 World Obesity Federation. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.)

Background: Although prior evidence indicates that water intake is important for health, the ability to accurately measure community-dwelling intake is limited. Only a few studies have evaluated self-reported water intake against an objective recovery biomarker., Objectives: The aim was to compare preformed water intakes (all sources including food) by multiple Automated Self-Administered 24-h recalls (ASA24s), food frequency questionnaires (FFQs), and 4-d food records (4DFRs) against a recovery biomarker, doubly labeled water (DLW), to assess measurement error., Methods: Over 1 y, 1082 women and men (50%), aged 50 to 74 y, were asked to complete 6 ASA24s, 2 FFQs, 2 unweighted 4DFRs, and an administration of DLW (n = 686). Geometric means of water intake by self-report tools were compared with DLW. Attenuation factors and correlation coefficients between self-reported and the recovery biomarker (DLW) were estimated., Results: Mean water intakes by DLW were 2777 mL/d (interquartile range, 2350 to 3331) in women and 3243 mL/d (interquartile range, 2720 to 3838) in men. Compared with DLW, water intake was underestimated by 18% to 31% on ASA24s and 43% to 44% on 4DFRs. Estimated geometric means from FFQs differed from DLW by -1% to +13%. For a single ASA24, FFQ, and 4DFR, attenuation factors were 0.28, 0.27, and 0.32 and correlation coefficients were 0.46, 0.48, and 0.49, respectively. Repeated use of 6 ASA24s, 2 FFQs, and 2 4DFRs improved attenuation factors to 0.43, 0.32, and 0.39 and correlation coefficients to 0.58, 0.53, and 0.54, respectively., Conclusions: FFQs may better estimate population means for usual water intake compared with ASA24 and 4DFR. Similar attenuation factors and correlation coefficients across all self-report tools indicate that researchers have 3 feasible options if the goal is understanding intake-disease relationships. The findings are useful for planning future nutrition studies that set policy priorities for populations and to understand the health impact of water. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03268577., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 includes guidance for infants and toddlers aged birth to 24 months. To assess alignment with this new guidance, the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-Toddlers-2020 was developed for toddlers 12 through 23 months old. This monograph focuses on the continuity, considerations, and future directions of this new index for toddlers in the context of evolving dietary guidance. There is considerable continuity between the HEI-Toddlers-2020 and previous versions of the HEI. The same process, guiding principles, and features (with caveats) are repeated in the new index. However, there are unique considerations for measurement, analysis, and interpretation for the HEI-Toddlers-2020 that this article addresses, while identifying future directions for the HEI-Toddlers-2020. The continued evolution of dietary guidance for infants, toddlers, and young children will provide additional opportunities for index-based metrics: considering inclusion of multidimensional layers in dietary patterns, defining a healthy eating trajectory, bridging healthy eating across different life stages, and communicating the constructs of balance among dietary constituents., (Copyright © 2023 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The Healthy Eating Index-Toddlers-2020 (HEI-Toddlers-2020) is a measure for assessing how well a set of foods aligns with new guidance in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 (DGA) for toddlers aged 12 through 23 months. This new tool was developed using consistent features and the guiding principles of the HEI. The HEI-Toddlers-2020, like HEI-2020, has 13 components reflecting all constituents of dietary intake, except for human milk or infant formula. These components include the following: Total Fruits, Whole Fruits, Total Vegetables, Greens and Beans, Whole Grains, Dairy, Total Protein Foods, Seafood and Plant Proteins, Fatty Acids, Refined Grains, Sodium, Added Sugars, and Saturated Fats. Healthy dietary patterns for toddlers have unique considerations reflected in the scoring standards for Added Sugars and Saturated Fats. Toddlers have lower energy intake relative to high nutrient needs and added sugars should be avoided. Another distinctive difference is that there is no recommendation to limit saturated fats to <10% of energy intake in this age group; however, saturated fats cannot be unlimited without displacing the energy available to achieve other food group and subgroup goals. Calculations using the HEI-Toddlers-2020, like the HEI-2020, result in a total score and a set of individual component scores that reveal a dietary pattern. The release of a HEI-Toddlers-2020 will enable assessment of diet quality that aligns with the DGA and support additional methodological research to examine needs specific to each life stage and how to model trajectories of healthy dietary patterns., (Copyright © 2023 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of this review is to share the process for reviewing, updating, and developing the most recent version of the Healthy Eating Index-2020 (HEI-2020) for ages 2 and older, following the release of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA), 2020-2025. The overall review process included: 1) gathering information from the updated DGA, experts, and federal stakeholders; 2) considering substantive changes and needs for new development, keeping in mind the HEI's key features and guiding principles, the US Department of Agriculture's Dietary Patterns that serve as the foundation for the HEI, and scoring considerations; and 3) completing evaluation analyses, including the examination of content validity. The review process led to the development of the HEI-2020; a separate HEI-Toddlers-2020 was developed for ages 12 through 23 months. The 13 components and scoring standards of the HEI-2020 fully align with the HEI-2015, although the index was renamed to clarify that it aligned with the most recent 2020-2025 DGA. As the evidence informing the DGA continues to evolve, various aspects of the HEI may need to evolve in the future as well. Further methodological research is encouraged to add to the scientific evidence base on dietary patterns, to examine needs specific to each life stage, and to model optimal trajectories of healthy dietary patterns over the lifespan., (Copyright © 2023 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: With the addition of new guidance for children from birth to 24 months in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 (DGA), a Healthy Eating Index (HEI) was developed for toddlers., Objective: To evaluate the psychometric properties of the HEI-Toddlers-2020, 5 analyses relevant to construct and concurrent validity and 2 related to reliability were examined., Design: Twenty-four-hour diet recall data from the cross-sectional National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2011-2018) were used. In addition, exemplary menus were analyzed., Participants/setting: The main analytic sample included toddlers aged 12 through 23 months (n = 838), with additional analyses of toddlers aged 12 through 35 months (n = 1,717) from the United States. Included participants had valid diet recalls and available weight-for-age data., Main Outcome Measures: Outcomes measures included HEI-Toddlers-2020 total and component scores on menus, population distributions, and correlations., Statistical Analyses: HEI total and component scores were calculated using menus from the American Academy of Pediatrics and Healthy Eating Research. Score means and distributions were estimated using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo approach with National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data (2011-2018). Principal component analysis explored dimensions and Pearson correlations examined components, energy, and Cronbach α. In addition, HEI-Toddlers-2020 and HEI-2020 scores were compared for identical intakes at age 24 months., Results: For validity, exemplary menus received high scores with the HEI-Toddlers-2020. The mean ± SE total HEI-Toddlers-2020 score for toddlers aged 12 through 23 months was 62.9 ± 0.78 and ranged from 40.1 to 84.4 (1 st to 99 th percentile). Correlation between diet quality and diet quantity was low (-0.15); the scree plot revealed multiple factors. In addition, total scores for identical intakes were approximately 1.5 points higher for HEI-Toddlers-2020 compared with HEI-2020 (difference range for component scores, -4.97 to 4.89). For reliability, most of the intercorrelations among components were low to moderate (0 to 0.49), with a few exceptions among related components. Cronbach α was .48. These results indicate that the index is multidimensional, with no single component driving the total score, and no unnecessary components that are highly correlated with another component., Conclusions: The results demonstrated evidence supportive of validity and reliability. The HEI-Toddlers-2020 can be used to assess alignment with the DGA for toddlers., (Copyright © 2023 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: High intake of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) is associated with increased risk of chronic disease; thus, it is important to understand how UPFs influence diet quality early in life., Objectives: We describe complementary foods and beverages (CFBs) according to the Nova Classification System of Food Processing for infants and toddlers in the United States and estimate how Nova groups and subgroups contribute to energy and select nutrients and food groups., Methods: We used day 1 24-h recall from infants and toddlers aged 6-23 mo from the cross-sectional, nationally representative 2013-18 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (n = 1140). We estimated contributions of Nova groups and subgroups to energy and select nutrients and food groups consumed as CFBs (excluding human milk and formula) using the population ratio with weighted survey commands in SAS., Results: For infants and toddlers in the United States, 42 ± 0.9% (mean ± standard error of the mean) of energy intake from CFBs came from unprocessed/minimally processed foods (U/MPFs) and 45 ± 0.8% from UPFs. U/MPFs contributed most to nutrient intakes (except iron, zinc, and sodium); ≥20% of all selected nutrients was from UPFs. UPFs contributed most to iron (75 ± 1.0%) and zinc (48 ± 1.3%); breakfast cereals were the top source. Most fruit, vegetables, and dairy were from U/MPFs. More than 80% of total grains, whole grains, refined grains, and added sugars were UPFs., Conclusions: U/MPFs support healthy dietary intake of infants and toddlers in the United States, whereas UPFs contribute meaningfully to nutrients and food groups to be encouraged (iron, zinc, and whole grains), as well as some that should be limited (added sugars and sodium). More research is needed to better understand the utility and sensitivities of using Nova for providing dietary guidance for infants and toddlers in the United States., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Objective markers of ultraprocessed foods (UPF) may improve the assessment of UPF intake and provide insight into how UPF influences health., Objectives: To identify metabolites that differed between dietary patterns (DPs) high in or void of UPF according to Nova classification., Methods: In a randomized, crossover, controlled-feeding trial (clinicaltrials.govNCT03407053), 20 domiciled healthy participants (mean ± standard deviation: age 31 ± 7 y, body mass index [kg/m 2 ] 22 ± 11.6) consumed ad libitum a UPF-DP (80% UPF) and an unprocessed DP (UN-DP; 0% UPF) for 2 wk each. Metabolites were measured using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid plasma, collected at week 2 and 24-h, and spot urine, collected at weeks 1 and 2, of each DP. Linear mixed models, adjusted for energy intake, were used to identify metabolites that differed between DPs., Results: After multiple comparisons correction, 257 out of 993 plasma and 606 out of 1279 24-h urine metabolites differed between UPF-DP and UN-DP. Overall, 21 known and 9 unknown metabolites differed between DPs across all time points and biospecimen types. Six metabolites were higher (4-hydroxy-L-glutamic acid, N-acetylaminooctanoic acid, 2-methoxyhydroquinone sulfate, 4-ethylphenylsulfate, 4-vinylphenol sulfate, and acesulfame) and 14 were lower following the UPF-DP; pimelic acid, was lower in plasma but higher in urine following the UPF-DP., Conclusions: Consuming a DP high in, compared with 1 void of, UPF has a measurable impact on the short-term human metabolome. Observed differential metabolites could serve as candidate biomarkers of UPF intake or metabolic response in larger samples with varying UPF-DPs. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03407053 and NCT03878108., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Assessment of individual and population-level dietary intake is critical for public health surveillance, epidemiology, and dietary intervention research. In recognition of that need, the National Insitutes of Health (NIH) has a history of funding research projects designed to support the development, implementation, and refinement of tools to assess dietary intake in humans., Objectives: This report provides data and information on NIH-funded dietary intake assessment methodological research over the period of 2012-2021., Methods: Data were extracted from an internal NIH data system using the Research, Condition, and Disease Categorization (RCDC) spending category for Nutrition. Data were then examined to identify research focused on dietary assessment tools or methods to capture or analyze dietary intake., Results: Over the decade of 2012-2021, NIH supported 46 grants and 2 large contracts specific to dietary assessment methods development. The top 6 Institutes and Offices funding dietary assessment methods research were identified. Most projects were limited to adults. Projects ranged from novel methods to capture dietary intake, and refinement of analytical methods, to biomarkers of dietary intake. One key contract supported the automated self-administered 24-h dietary assessment tool (ASA24), a widely used, free tool available to the research community for assessing dietary intake., Conclusions: NIH's support for dietary assessment methods development over this 10-y period was small but grew over time with an expanding number and variety of methods, data sources, and technological advancements in the assessment of dietary intake. NIH remains committed to supporting research seeking to advance the field of dietary assessment methods research., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Differences in food access, availability, affordability, and dietary intake are influenced by the food environment, which includes outlets where foods are obtained. These differences between food outlets within rural and urban food environments in the United States are not well understood., Objectives: The aim of this analysis is to describe the contribution of foods and beverages from 6 outlets-grocery stores, convenience stores, full-service restaurants, quick-service restaurants, schools, and other outlets-to the total energy intake and Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2015 scores in the United States population, by urbanization level (nonmetropolitan statistical areas [MSAs], small-to-medium MSAs, and large MSAs)., Methods: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2018 were used. Dietary intake from one 24-h dietary recall was analyzed by the outlet where a food or beverage was obtained and by urbanization. Linear regression, adjusted for sex, age, race and Hispanic origin, and family income, was used to predict the contribution of each food outlet to the total energy intake and HEI-2015 total and component scores by urbanization level., Results: During 2013-2018, foods and beverages from grocery stores and quick-service and full-service restaurants contributed to 62.1%, 15.1%, and 8.5% of the energy intake, respectively. The percentage of energy intake from full- and quick-service restaurants increased with increasing urbanization level. HEI-2015 total scores increased with the increasing urbanization level overall (48.1 non-MSAs, 49.2 small-to-medium MSAs, and 51.3 large MSAs) for grocery stores (46.7 non-MSAs, 48.0 small-to-medium MSAs, and 50.6 large MSAs) and for quick-service restaurants (35.8 non-MSAs, 36.3 small-to-medium MSAs, and 37.5 large MSAs)., Conclusions: Grocery stores and restaurants were the largest contributors of energy intake in urban and rural areas. Diet quality improved with increasing urbanization overall and for grocery stores and quick-service restaurants., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: The degree of food processing may be an important dimension of diet in how it relates to health outcomes. A major challenge is standardizing food processing classification systems for commonly used datasets., Objectives: To standardize and increase transparency in its application, we describe the approach used to classify foods and beverages according to the Nova food processing classification in the 24-h dietary recalls from the 2001-2018 cycles of What We Eat in America (WWEIA), NHANES, and investigate variability and potential for Nova misclassification within WWEIA, NHANES 2017-2018 data via various sensitivity analyses., Methods: First, we described how the Nova classification system was applied to the 2001-2018 WWEIA, NHANES data using the reference approach. Second, we calculated the percentage energy from Nova groups [1: unprocessed or minimally processed foods, 2: processed culinary ingredients, 3: processed foods, and 4: ultraprocessed foods (UPFs)] for the reference approach using day 1 dietary recall data from non-breastfed participants aged ≥1 y from the 2017-2018 WWEIA, NHANES. We then conducted 4 sensitivity analyses comparing potential alternative approaches (e.g., opting for more vs. less degree of processing for ambiguous items) to the reference approach, to assess how estimates differed., Results: The energy contribution of UPFs using the reference approach was 58.2% ± 0.9% of the total energy; unprocessed or minimally processed foods contributed 27.6% ± 0.7%, processed culinary ingredients contributed 5.2% ± 0.1%, and processed foods contributed 9.0% ± 0.3%. In sensitivity analyses, the dietary energy contribution of UPFs ranged from 53.4% ± 0.8% to 60.1% ± 0.8% across alternative approaches., Conclusions: We present a reference approach for applying the Nova classification system to WWEIA, NHANES 2001-2018 data to promote standardization and comparability of future research. Alternative approaches are also described, with total energy from UPFs differing by ∼6% between approaches for 2017-2018 WWEIA, NHANES., (Copyright © 2022 American Society for Nutrition. All rights reserved.)

Background: High energy intake from non-nutrient-dense sources correlates with poorer diet quality., Objectives: The aims were to 1) estimate total energy intake and energy from solid fats and added sugars combined (SoFAS) and identify their top food category sources for ages 2-18 y in 2015-2018 and 2) describe trends over time in 2009-2018., Methods: Data were from the NHANES. Pairwise differences were examined using univariate t statistics (2015-2018, n = 5038), and trends by age and over time (2009-2018, n = 14,038) were examined using orthogonal polynomials., Results: In 2015-2018, SoFAS contributed a mean (SE) of 30.0% (0.3%) of total energy. Solid fats [16.1% (0.2%)] and added sugars [13.8% (0.2%)] each contributed >10%. The contribution of added sugars increased with age from 11.1% (2-3 y) to 14.4% (14-18 y), and was higher for all other race/Hispanic origins than non-Hispanic Asians. The top 5 sources of energy were sweet bakery products, savory snacks, pizza, other mixed dishes, and unflavored milk, and for SoFAS also included soft drinks, other desserts, candy, and snack bars. Total energy did not change between 2009 and 2018, but energy from SoFAS, and servings of solid fats, and added sugars declined. The contribution of unflavored milk to total energy declined for all ages and most race/Hispanic origins. Fruit drinks (all ages) and soft drinks (9-18 y) remained among top added sugars sources despite declines. The contribution of sweet bakery products to energy from SoFAS increased for most ages and candy and snack bars to energy from added sugars., Conclusions: In 2015-2018, SoFAS contributed >30% of total energy for ages 2-18 y, which doubled the Dietary Guidelines for Americans' recommended limit of 15%. The top 5 sources of total energy were similar to those of solid fats, and those of SoFAS similar to those of added sugars. These results may inform public health efforts for improving diet quality., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition 2022.)

Complementary foods and beverages (CFBs) are key components of an infant's diet in the second 6 months of life. This article summarizes nutrition and feeding practices examined by the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committees during the CFB life stage. Breastfeeding initiation is high (84%), but exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months (26%) is below the Healthy People 2030 goal (42%). Most infants (51%) are introduced to CFBs sometime before 6 months. The primary mode of feeding (ie, human milk fed [HMF]; infant formula or mixed formula and human milk fed [FMF]) at the initiation of CFBs is associated with the timing of introduction and types of CFBs reported. FMF infants (42%) are more likely to be introduced to CFBs before 4 months compared with HMF infants (19%). Different dietary patterns, such as higher prevalence of consumption and mean amounts, were observed, including fruit, grains, dairy, proteins, and solid fats. Compared with HMF infants of the same age, FMF infants consume more total energy (845 vs 631 kcal) and protein (22 vs 12 g) from all sources, and more energy (345 vs 204 kcal) and protein (11 vs 6 g) from CFBs alone. HMF infants have a higher prevalence of risk of inadequate intakes of iron (77% vs 7%), zinc (54% vs <3%), and protein (27% vs <3%). FMF infants are more likely to have an early introduction (<12 months) to fruit juice (45% vs 20%) and cow's milk (36% vs 24%). Registered dietitian nutritionists and nutritional professionals should consider tailoring their advice to caregivers on dietary and complementary feeding practices, taking into account the primary mode of milk feeding during this life stage to support infants' nutrient adequacy. National studies that address the limitations of this analysis, including small sample sizes and imputed breast milk volume, could refine findings from this analysis., (Copyright © 2022 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Accurately estimating portion sizes remains a challenge in dietary assessment. Digital images used in online 24-hour dietary recalls may be conducive to accuracy., Objective: The current analyses were conducted to examine the accuracy of portion size estimation by women with low incomes who completed 24-hour dietary recalls using the online Automated Self-Administered 24-hour Dietary Assessment Tool (ASA24) in the Food and Eating Assessment Study II., Design: True dietary intake was observed for 3 meals on 1 day through a controlled feeding study conducted from May through July 2016. The following day, participants completed an unannounced 24-hour dietary recall using ASA24, independently or with assistance in a small-group setting., Participants/setting: Participants included 302 women aged 18 to 82 years living in the Washington, DC, area who met the income thresholds for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program., Main Outcome Measures: The accuracy of portion size estimation was assessed by comparing the weight truly consumed (observed) and the weight reported for predetermined categories of foods and beverages., Statistical Analyses Performed: The differences between observed and reported portions were examined and linear regression tested differences by recall condition. Analyses were conducted by condition and repeated with stratification by racial/ethnic identity, education, and body mass index., Results: On average across foods and beverages, reported portion sizes were 7.4 g (95% CI, 4.3-10.5) and 6.4 g (95% CI, 2.8-10.0) higher than observed portion sizes in the independent and assisted conditions, respectively. Portion sizes were overestimated for small pieces and shaped foods in both conditions, as well as for amorphous/soft foods in the assisted condition and underestimated for single-unit foods in both conditions. Misestimation was fairly consistent by participants' race/ethnicity, education, and body mass index, to varying magnitudes., Conclusions: Women with low incomes overestimated the amounts of foods and beverages consumed across several categories using online 24-hour dietary recalls with digital images to support portion size estimation. Assistance with ASA24 had little impact on accuracy., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Many research questions focused on characterizing usual, or long-term average, dietary intake of populations and subpopulations rely on short-term intake data. The objective of this paper is to review key assumptions, statistical techniques, and considerations underpinning the use of short-term dietary intake data to make inference about usual dietary intake. The focus is on measurement error and strategies to mitigate its effects on estimated characteristics of population-level usual intake, with attention to relevant analytic issues such as accounting for survey design. Key assumptions are that short-term assessments are subject to random error only (i.e., unbiased for individual usual intake) and that some aspects of the error structure apply to all respondents, allowing estimation of this error structure in data sets with only a few repeat measures per person. Under these assumptions, a single 24-hour dietary recall per person can be used to estimate group mean intake; and with as little as one repeat on a subsample and with more complex statistical techniques, other characteristics of distributions of usual intake, such as percentiles, can be estimated. Related considerations include the number of days of data available, skewness of intake distributions, whether the dietary components of interest are consumed nearly daily by nearly everyone or episodically, the number of correlated dietary components of interest, time-varying nuisance effects related to day of week and season, and variance estimation and inference. Appropriate application of assumptions and recommended statistical techniques allows researchers to address a range of research questions, though it is imperative to acknowledge systematic error (bias) in short-term data and its implications for conclusions., (Copyright © 2022 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Standardized methods are needed to investigate intake patterns of processed meat subtypes, considering health concerns surrounding processed meat intake., Objectives: The objectives of this study were to create a standardized method of disaggregating processed meat into processed red meat and processed poultry and describe intake patterns of the US population aged ≥2 y., Methods: Two researchers independently manually disaggregated processed meat from the Food Patterns Equivalents Database into processed red meat and processed poultry based on available information from the Foods and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies. We created an SAS program (called Processed Meat Categories) to mimic the manual coding. We used the program to describe intake patterns and trends over time of processed red meat and processed poultry using 24-h recalls from 2007-2008 through 2017-2018 NHANES data with SAS survey-weighted procedures for complex surveys., Results: The SAS program had high agreement with the manual code (Pearson concordance correlation ≥0.95). Of the US population aged ≥2 y, 46.8% (95% CI: 45.3, 48.2%) reported consuming any processed meat, 42.5% (95% CI: 41.0, 43.9%) reported consuming processed red meat, and 11.3% (95% CI: 10.2, 12.4%) reported consuming processed poultry. Most [74.1 ± 0.13% (SEM)] processed meat reported was red meat compared with poultry, and 32.1 ± 0.01% of total red meat and 13.7 ± 0.01% of total poultry reported were processed. Prevalence of processed poultry intake increased from 9.5% (95% CI: 8.9, 10.1%) in 2007-2010 to 11.3% (95% CI: 10.2, 12.4%) in 2015-2018 (P < 0.0001), but mean intake amount did not change. Prevalence of processed red meat intake did not change over time, but mean intake decreased from 0.8 ± 0.03 ounce-equivalents in 2007-2010 to 0.7 ± 0.02 ounce-equivalents (P = 0.0058) in 2015-2018., Conclusions: The Processed Meat Categories SAS program is a tool available for researchers to standardize estimates of processed meat subtypes for future dietary patterns research. Intake of total processed meat did not change in the United States, but intake amount of processed red meat decreased and the prevalence of processed poultry consumers increased., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition 2021.)

Heterogeneity in meat food groups hinders interpretation of research regarding meat intake and chronic disease risk. Our objective was to investigate how heterogeneity in red meat (RM) and poultry food groups influences US population intake estimates. Based on a prior systematic review, we created an ontology of methods used to estimate RM [1= unprocessed RM; 2 (reference)= unprocessed RM + processed RM; 3= unprocessed RM + processed RM + processed poultry; and 4=unprocessed RM + processed RM + processed poultry + chicken patties/nuggets/tenders (PNT)] and three for poultry [A=unprocessed poultry; B= unprocessed poultry + PNT; C (reference)= unprocessed poultry + processed poultry + PNT). We applied methods to 2015-18 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data to estimate RM and poultry intake prevalence and amount. We estimated and compared intakes within RM and within poultry methods via the NCI Method for individuals ≥2 years old ( n = 15,038), adjusted for age, sex, and race/Hispanic origin. We compared the population percentage that exceeded age- and sex-specific RM and poultry allotments from the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommended eating patterns. The percent that consumed RM ranged from 47 ± 1.2% to 75 ± 0.8% across methods and mean amount ranged from 10.5 ± 0.28 to 18.2 ± 0.35 lean oz-equivalents/week; 38 ± 1.2% to 71 ± 0.7% and 9.8 ± 0.35 to 13.3 ± 0.35 lean oz-equivalents/week across poultry methods. Estimates for higher, but not lower, intake percentiles differed across RM methods. Compared to the reference, Method 1 was ≥3.0 oz-equivalents/week lower from 20th-70th percentiles, ≥6.0 oz-equivalents/week lower from 75th-90th percentiles, and ≥9.0 oz-equivalents/week lower for the 95th percentile. Method 4, but not Method 3, was ≥3.0 oz-equivalents/week higher than the reference from 50 to 95th percentiles. The population percentage that exceeded allotments was 27 ± 1.8% lower for Method 1, 9 ± 0.8% higher for Method 3, and 14 ± 0.9% higher for Method 4 compared to the reference. Differences were less pronounced for poultry. Our analysis quantifies the magnitude of bias introduced by heterogeneous meat food group methodology. Explicit descriptions of meat food groups are important for development of dietary recommendations to ensure that research studies are compared appropriately., Competing Interests: RP is employed by Information Management Services, Inc. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 O'Connor, Herrick, Parsons and Reedy.)

Importance: The childhood obesity rate has been steadily rising among US youths during the past 2 decades. Increasing evidence links consumption of ultraprocessed foods to excessive calorie consumption and weight gain, but trends in the consumption of ultraprocessed foods among US youths have not been well characterized., Objective: To characterize trends in the consumption of ultraprocessed foods among US youths., Design, Setting, and Participants: Serial cross-sectional analysis using 24-hour dietary recall data from a nationally representative sample of US youths aged 2-19 years (n = 33 795) from 10 cycles of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 1999-2000 to 2017-2018., Exposures: Secular time., Main Outcomes and Measures: Percentage of total energy consumed from ultraprocessed foods as defined by NOVA, an established food classification system that categorizes food according to the degree of food processing., Results: Dietary intake from youths were analyzed (weighted mean age, 10.7 years; 49.1% were girls). From 1999 to 2018, the estimated percentage of total energy from consumption of ultraprocessed foods increased from 61.4% to 67.0% (difference, 5.6% [95% CI, 3.5% to 7.7%]; P < .001 for trend), whereas the percentage of total energy from consumption of unprocessed or minimally processed foods decreased from 28.8% to 23.5% (difference, -5.3% [95% CI, -7.5% to -3.2%]; P < .001 for trend). Among the subgroups of ultraprocessed foods, the estimated percentage of energy from consumption of ready-to-heat and -eat mixed dishes increased from 2.2% to 11.2% (difference, 8.9% [95% CI, 7.7% to 10.2%]) and from consumption of sweet snacks and sweets increased from 10.7% to 12.9% (difference, 2.3% [95% CI, 1.0% to 3.6%]), but the estimated percentage of energy decreased for sugar-sweetened beverages from 10.8% to 5.3% (difference, -5.5% [95% CI, -6.5% to -4.5%]) and for processed fats and oils, condiments, and sauces from 7.1% to 4.0% (difference, -3.1% [95% CI, -3.7% to -2.6%]) (all P < .05 for trend). There was a significantly larger increase in the estimated percentage of energy from consumption of ultraprocessed foods among non-Hispanic Black youths (from 62.2% to 72.5%; difference, 10.3% [95% CI, 6.8% to 13.8%]) and Mexican American youths (from 55.8% to 63.5%; difference, 7.6% [95% CI, 4.4% to 10.9%]) than the increase among non-Hispanic White youths (from 63.4% to 68.6%; difference, 5.2% [95% CI, 2.1% to 8.3%]) (P = .04 for trends)., Conclusions and Relevance: Based on the NHANES cycles from 1999 to 2018, the estimated proportion of energy intake from consumption of ultraprocessed foods has increased among youths in the US and has consistently comprised the majority of their total energy intake.

Diet quality in the United States is improving over time but remains poor. Food outlets influence diet quality and represent the environments in which individuals make choices about food purchases and intake. The objective of this study was to use the Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) to evaluate the quality of foods consumed from the four major outlets where food is obtained-stores, full-service restaurants, quick-services restaurants, and schools-and to assess changes over time. This cross-sectional study used 24 h dietary recall data from eight cycles (2003-2004 to 2017-2018) of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Linear trend estimation was used to test for changes in HEI scores over time, and balanced repeated replicate weighted linear regression was used to test for differences in total and component scores between types of food outlets. Overall, Americans are not consuming a mix of foods from any major category of food outlet that aligns with dietary guidelines. The total score for schools (65/100 points) and stores (62/100 points) was significantly higher than full-service (51/100 points) and quick-service (39/100 points) restaurants ( p < 0.0001). HEI scores significantly improved over time for schools ( p < 0.001), including an increase in whole grains from less than 1 point in 2003-2004 to 7 out of 10 points in 2017-2018. In 2017-2018, schools received the maximum score for total fruits, whole fruits, and dairy. Continued research on strategies for improving the quality of foods consumed from restaurants and stores is warranted.

Background & Aims: Public interest in pre-, pro-, and synbiotic products is increasing because of interactions between gut microbiota and human health. Our aim was to describe nonfood (from dietary supplements or medication) pre-, pro-, and synbiotic use by US adults and children and reported reasons., Methods: Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we text-mined dietary supplement and prescription medication labels and ingredients to identify pre-, pro-, and synbiotic products used in the past 30 days. We describe trends in use from 1999 to 2018 (n = 101,199) and prevalence in 2015-2016 and 2017-2018 (n = 19,215) by age groups, sex, ethnicity/race, education, income, self-reported diet and health quality, and prescription gastrointestinal medication use stratified by children (<19 years) and adults (19+ years)., Results: Nonfood pre-, pro-, and synbiotic use increased up to 3-fold in recent cycles. Prevalence of use for all ages for prebiotics was 2.4% (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.0-2.9), for probiotics was 4.5% (95% CI, 3.5-5.6), and for synbiotics was 1.1% (95% CI, 0.8-1.5). Use was highest among older adults (8.8% [95% CI, 5.4-13.3] among those aged 60-69 years for probiotics), non-Hispanic Whites, those with higher educational attainment and income, those with more favorable self-reported diet or health quality, and those with concurrent prescription gastrointestinal medication use. The top reasons for use were for digestive health and to promote/maintain general health. Less than 30% reported using these products based on a health care provider's recommendation., Conclusions: One in 20 US adults or children use nonfood pre-, pro-, or synbiotic products, and use has sharply increased in recent years. Most individuals voluntarily take these products for general digestive or overall health reasons., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Limited information is available on added sugars consumption in US infants and toddlers., Objectives: To present national estimates of added sugars intake among US infants and toddlers by sociodemographic characteristics, to identify top sources of added sugars, and to examine trends in added sugars intake., Design: Cross-sectional analysis of 1 day of 24-hour dietary recall data., Participants/setting: A nationally representative sample of US infants aged 0 to 11 months and toddlers aged 12 to 23 months (n=1,211) during the period from 2011 through 2016 from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Trends were assessed from 2005-2006 through 2015-2016 (n=2,795)., Main Outcome Measures: Among infants and toddlers, the proportion consuming any added sugars, the average amount of added sugars consumed, percent of total energy from added sugars, and top sources of added sugars intake., Statistical Analysis: Paired t tests were used to compare differences by age, sex, race/Hispanic origin, family income level, and head of household education level. Trends were tested using orthogonal polynomials. Significance was set at P<0.05., Results: During 2011 to 2016, 84.4% of infants and toddlers consumed added sugars on a given day. A greater proportion of toddlers (98.3%) consumed added sugars than infants (60.6%). The mean amount of added sugars toddlers consumed was also more compared with infants (5.8 vs 0.9 tsp). Non-Hispanic black toddlers (8.2 tsp) consumed more added sugars than non-Hispanic Asian (3.7 tsp), non-Hispanic white (5.3 tsp), and Hispanic (5.9 tsp) toddlers. A similar pattern was observed for percent energy from added sugars. For infants, top sources of added sugars were yogurt, baby food snacks/sweets, and sweet bakery products; top sources among toddlers were fruit drinks, sugars/sweets, and sweet bakery products. The mean amount of added sugars decreased from 2005-2006 through 2015-2016 for both age groups; however, percent energy from added sugars only decreased among infants., Conclusion: Added sugars intake was observed among infants/toddlers and varied by age and race and Hispanic origin. Added sugars intake, as a percent of energy, decreased only among infants from 2005 to 2016., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Vitamin D is important for bone health; in 2014 it was the fifth most commonly ordered laboratory test among Medicare Part B payments., Objectives: The aim of this study was to describe vitamin D status in the US population in 2011-2014 and trends from 2003 to 2014., Methods: We used serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D data from NHANES 2011-2014 (n = 16,180), and estimated the prevalence at risk of deficiency (<30 nmol/L) or prevalence at risk of inadequacy (30-49 nmol/L) by age, sex, race and Hispanic origin, and dietary intake of vitamin D. We also present trends between 2003 and 2014., Results: In 2011-2014, the percentage aged ≥1 y at risk of vitamin D deficiency or inadequacy was 5.0% (95% CI: 4.1%, 6.2%) and 18.3% (95% CI: 16.2%, 20.6%). The prevalence of at risk of deficiency was lowest among children aged 1-5 y (0.5%; 95% CI: 0.3%, 1.1%), peaked among adults aged 20-39 y (7.6%; 95% CI: 6.0%, 9.6%), and fell to 2.9% (95% CI: 2.0%, 4.0%) among adults aged ≥60 y; the prevalence of at risk of inadequacy was similar. The prevalence of at risk of deficiency was higher among non-Hispanic black (17.5%; 95% CI: 15.2%, 20.0%) than among non-Hispanic Asian (7.6%; 95% CI: 5.9%, 9.9%), non-Hispanic white (2.1%; 95% CI: 1.5%, 2.7%), and Hispanic (5.9%; 95% CI: 4.4%, 7.8%) persons; the prevalence of at risk of inadequacy was similar. Persons with higher vitamin D dietary intake or who used supplements had lower prevalences of at risk of deficiency or inadequacy. From 2003 to 2014 there was no change in the risk of vitamin D deficiency; the risk of inadequacy declined from 21.0% (95% CI: 17.9%, 24.5%) to 17.7% (95% CI: 16.0%, 19.7%)., Conclusion: The prevalence of at risk of vitamin D deficiency in the United States remained stable from 2003 to 2014; at risk of inadequacy declined. Differences in vitamin D status by race and Hispanic origin warrant additional investigation., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition 2019.)

Approximately 24% of U.S. adolescents attempted to lose weight during 2009-2010, and studies show that girls are more likely than boys to attempt weight loss (1,2). Adolescents are known to use multiple weight loss and weight control practices (3). This report describes the percentage of U.S. adolescents who tried to lose weight in the past year from 2013 through 2016 by sex, race and Hispanic origin, and weight status. Methods of intentional weight loss are also reported., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Total grains intake comes from whole grains and refined grains. Whole grains contain the entire grain kernel (bran, germ, and endosperm) (1). A higher intake of whole grains is linked with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality (2). The "2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans" recommend that at least one-half of total grains intake be from whole grains (3). This report provides estimates of the percentage of total grains intake consumed from whole grains sources, for adults aged 20 and over who reported consumption of grains (98.6%) on a given day during 2013-2016., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Background: Limited nationally representative data are available on dietary supplement (DS) use and resulting nutrient exposures among infants and toddlers., Objective: This study evaluated DS use among US infants and toddlers to characterize DS use, estimate nutrient intake from DSs, and assess trends in DS use over time., Methods: Using nationally representative data from NHANES (2007-2014) and trends over time (1999-2014), we estimated prevalence of DS use and types of products used for US infants and toddlers aged <2 y (n = 2823). We estimated median daily intakes of vitamins and minerals consumed via DSs for all participants aged <2 y, by age groups (0-11.9 mo and 12.0-23.9 mo), and by feeding practices for infants 0-5.9 mo., Results: Overall, 18.2% (95% CI: 16.2%, 20.3%) of infants and toddlers used ≥1 DS in the past 30 d. Use was lower among infants (0-5.9 mo: 14.6%; 95% CI: 11.5%, 18.1%; 6-11.9 mo: 11.6%; 95% CI: 8.8%, 15.0%) than among toddlers (12-23.9 mo: 23.3%; 95% CI: 20.4%, 26.3%). The most commonly reported DSs were vitamin D and multivitamin infant drops for those <12 mo, and chewable multivitamin products for toddlers (12-23.9 mo). The nutrients most frequently consumed from DSs were vitamins D, A, C, and E for those <2 y; for infants <6 mo, a higher percentage of those fed breast milk than those fed formula consumed these nutrients via DSs. DS use remained steady for infants (6-11.9 mo) and toddlers from 1999-2002 to 2011-2014, but increased from 7% to 20% for infants aged 0-5.9 mo., Conclusions: One in 5 infants and toddlers aged <2 y use ≥1 DS. Future studies should examine total nutrient intake from foods, beverages, and DSs to evaluate nutrient adequacy overall and by nutrient source., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition 2019.)

Fast food is a part of the American diet and has been associated with high caloric intake (1), and poor diet quality (2). Time, financial resources, price, and availability influence fast food consumption (3). This report presents data on the percentage of adults who consumed fast food on a given day in the United States during 2013-2016., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Beverages contribute to hydration and affect total calorie intake (1). For all individuals aged 2 years and over, the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that water, fat-free and low-fat milk, and 100% juice be the primary beverages consumed (2). The American Academy of Pediatrics also supports this advice for youth (3). This report describes the contribution of different beverage types to total beverage consumption, by grams, among U.S. youth., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (1) recommend consuming two servings of seafood, including fish and shellfish, per week. Consuming approximately 8 ounces of a variety of seafood weekly is associated with reduced cardiac deaths (2). This report describes the percentage of U.S. adults and youth who reported consuming seafood at least two times per week by sex, age, and race and Hispanic origin during 2013-2016. Trends in the percentage of adults and youth who consumed seafood at least twice weekly, from 2005-2006 through 2015-2016, are also presented., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Objective: This review summarizes the current and previous data on dietary supplement (DS) use collected from participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), describes the NHANES dietary supplement database used to compute nutrient intakes from DSs, discussed recent developments and future direction, and describes many examples to demonstrate the utility of these data in informing nutrition research and policy., Background and History: Since 1971, NHANES, has been collecting information on the use of DSs from participants. These data are critical to national nutrition surveillance and have been used to characterize usage patterns, examine trends over time, assess the percentage of the population meeting or exceeding nutrient recommendations, and to help elucidate the sources contributing nutrients to the diet of the US population., Rationale: Over half of adults and about one-third of children in the United States use at least one dietary supplement in the past 30 days. Dietary supplements contribute to the dietary intake of nutrients and bioactive compounds in the US and therefore need to be assessed when monitoring nutritional status of the population and when studying diet-health associations., Recent Developments: With the recent development and availability of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD), a comprehensive DS database that will eventually contain labels for all products marketed in the US, NHANES DS data will be more easily linked to product information to estimate nutrient intake from DS., Future Directions: Over time, NHANES has both expanded and improved collection methods. The continued understanding of sources of error in collection methods will continue to be explored and is critical to improved accuracy., Conclusions: NHANES provides a rich source of nationally representative data on the usage of dietary supplements in the US., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest and funding disclosure: J. J. Gahche, R.L. Bailey, N. Potischman, A.G. Ershow, K.A. Herrick, N. Ahluwalia have no conflicts of interest. J.T. Dwyer has stock in several drug companies, some of which may sell dietary supplements. There is no funding to disclose.

Objective: To describe the history, key features, recent enhancements, and common applications of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)., Background and History: Although many Americans use dietary supplements, databases of dietary supplements sold in the United States have not been widely available. The DSLD, an easily accessible public-use database was created in 2008 to provide information on dietary supplement composition for use by researchers and consumers., Rationale: Accessing current information easily and quickly is crucial for documenting exposures to dietary supplements because they contain nutrients and other bioactive ingredients that may have beneficial or adverse effects on human health. This manuscript details recent developments with the DSLD to achieve this goal and provides examples of how the DSLD has been used., Recent Developments: With periodic updates to track changes in product composition and capture new products entering the market, the DSLD currently contains more than 71,000 dietary supplement labels. Following usability testing with consumer and researcher user groups completed in 2016, improvements to the DSLD interface were made. As of 2017, both a desktop and mobile device version are now available. Since its inception in 2008, the use of the DSLD has included research, exposure monitoring, and other purposes by users in the public and private sectors., Future Directions: Further refinement of the user interface and search features to facilitate ease of use for stakeholders is planned., Conclusions: The DSLD can be used to track changes in product composition and capture new products entering the market. With over 71,000 DS labels it is a unique resource that policymakers, researchers, clinicians, and consumers may find valuable for multiple applications., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest: JT Dwyer, RA Bailen, L Saldanha, J Gahche, R Costello, JM Betz, Cindy Davis, RL Bailey, N Potischman, A Ershow, B Sorkin, A Kuszak,L Rios-Avila, F Chang, J Goshorn, K Andrews, P Pehrsson, P Gusev, J Harnly, CJ Hardy, N Emenaker, KA Herrick, no conflicts of interest.

We estimated iodine status (median urinary iodine concentration (mUIC (&micro;g/L))) for the US population (6 years and over; n = 4613) and women of reproductive age (WRA) (15⁻44 years; n = 901). We estimated mean intake of key iodine sources by race and Hispanic origin. We present the first national estimates of mUIC for non-Hispanic Asian persons and examine the intake of soy products, a potential source of goitrogens. One-third of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) participants in 2011⁻2014 provided casual urine samples; UIC was measured in these samples. We assessed dietary intake with one 24-h recall and created food groups using the USDA&rsquo;s food/beverage coding scheme. For WRA, mUIC was 110 &micro;g/L. For both non-Hispanic white (106 &micro;g/L) and non-Hispanic Asian (81 &micro;g/L) WRA mUIC was significantly lower than mUIC among Hispanic WRA (133 &micro;g/L). Non-Hispanic black WRA had a mUIC of 124 &micro;g/L. Dairy consumption was significantly higher among non-Hispanic white (162 g) compared to non-Hispanic black WRA (113 g). Soy consumption was also higher among non-Hispanic Asian WRA (18 g compared to non-Hispanic black WRA (1 g). Differences in the consumption pattern of key sources of iodine and goitrogens may put subgroups of individuals at risk of mild iodine deficiency. Continued monitoring of iodine status and variations in consumption patterns is needed., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Almost 40% of adults in the United States had obesity in 2015-2016 (1). Obesity is associated with a range of serious health risks (2). Individuals may have multiple motivations for trying to losing weight, including health and appearance reasons (3). This report describes the percentage of U.S. adults who tried to lose weight in the past year by sex, age, race and Hispanic origin, family income, and weight status, based on data collected in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2013 -2016., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Objective: Differences in bottled v. tap water intake may provide insights into health disparities, like risk of dental caries and inadequate hydration. We examined differences in plain, tap and bottled water consumption among US adults by sociodemographic characteristics., Design: Cross-sectional analysis. We used 24 h dietary recall data to test differences in percentage consuming the water sources and mean intake between groups using Wald tests and multiple logistic and linear regression models., Setting: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2007-2014., Subjects: A nationally representative sample of 20 676 adults aged ≥20 years., Results: In 2011-2014, 81·4 (se 0·6) % of adults drank plain water (sum of tap and bottled), 55·2 (se 1·4) % drank tap water and 33·4 (se 1·4) % drank bottled water on a given day. Adjusting for covariates, non-Hispanic (NH) Black and Hispanic adults had 0·44 (95 % CI 0·37, 0·53) and 0·55 (95 % CI 0·45, 0·66) times the odds of consuming tap water, and consumed B=-330 (se 45) ml and B=-180 (se 45) ml less tap water than NH White adults, respectively. NH Black, Hispanic and adults born outside the fifty US states or Washington, DC had 2·20 (95 % CI 1·79, 2·69), 2·37 (95 % CI 1·91, 2·94) and 1·46 (95 % CI 1·19, 1·79) times the odds of consuming bottled water than their NH White and US-born counterparts. In 2007-2010, water filtration was associated with higher odds of drinking plain and tap water., Conclusions: While most US adults consumed plain water, the source (i.e. tap or bottled) and amount differed by race/Hispanic origin, nativity status and education. Water filters may increase tap water consumption.

In the United States, the American Thyroid Association recommends that women take a dietary supplement containing 150 &micro;g of iodine 3 months prior to conception and while pregnant and lactating to support fetal growth and neurological development. We used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011&ndash;2014 to describe the use of dietary supplements with and without iodine in the past 30 days among 2155 non-pregnant, non-lactating (NPNL) women; 122 pregnant women; and 61 lactating women. Among NPNL women, 45.3% (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 42.0, 48.6) used any dietary supplement and 14.8% (95% CI: 12.7, 16.8) used a dietary supplement with iodine in the past 30 days. Non-Hispanic black and Hispanic women were less likely to use any dietary supplement as well as one with iodine, than non-Hispanic white or non-Hispanic Asian women ( p < 0.05). Among pregnant women, 72.2% (95% CI: 65.8, 78.6) used any dietary supplement; however, only 17.8% (95% CI: 11.4, 24.3) used a dietary supplement with iodine. Among lactating women, 75.0% (95% CI: 63.0, 87.0) used a dietary supplement; however, only 19.0% (95% CI: 8.8, 29.2) used a dietary supplement with iodine. Among NPNL women using a supplement with iodine, median daily iodine intake was 75.0 &micro;g. Self-reported data suggests that the use of iodine containing dietary supplements among pregnant and lactating women remains low in contrast with current recommendations.

Dietary recommendations are intended to be met based on dietary intake over long periods, as associations between diet and health result from habitual intake, not a single eating occasion or day of intake. Measuring usual intake directly is impractical for large population-based surveys due to the respondent burden associated with reporting habitual intake over longer periods. Therefore, analytical techniques were developed to estimate usual intake using as few as 2 days of 24-hour dietary recall data. With National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data, this report demonstrates how to estimate usual intake using the National Cancer Institute (NCI). This report demonstrates how to estimate the usual intake of nutrients consumed daily or episodically using NHANES data. Means, percentiles, and the percentages above or below specified Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) values for given day, within-person mean (WPM), and estimates of usual intake are presented. Consistent with previous analyses, mean intakes were similar across methods. However, the distributions estimated by nonusual intake methods were wider compared with the NCI Method, which can lead to misclassification of the percentage of the population above or below certain DRIs. Use of NHANES data to examine the proportion of the population at risk of insufficiency or excess of certain nutrients, with methods like given day and WPM that do not address within-person variation, may lead to biased estimates., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Early dietary patterns can have long-term health consequences. This study describes food consumption patterns among US children ≤23 months. We used one 24 h dietary recall from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2014 to estimate the percentage of children ≤23 months who consumed selected food/beverage categories on any given day by age and race/Hispanic origin. Among 0 to 5 month olds, 42.9% (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 37.0%, 49.1%) consumed breast milk, with non-Hispanic blacks less likely (21.2%, 95% CI: 13.2%, 32.2%) compared with non-Hispanic whites (49.0%, 95% CI: 39.0%, 59.1%) ( p < 0.001). The percentage of children consuming vegetables was 57.4%, 48.2%, and 45.1% for ages 6 to 11, 12 to 18 and 19 to 23 months, respectively ( p < 0.01 for trend). The percentage of children consuming sugar-sweetened beverages was 6.6%, 31.8% and 38.3% for ages 6 to 11, 12 to 18 and 19 to 23 months, respectively ( p < 0.01 for trend). Among children aged ≥6 months, lower percentages of non-Hispanic black and Hispanic children consumed vegetables, and higher percentages consumed sugar-sweetened beverages and 100% juice compared with non-Hispanic white children, although differences were not always statistically significant. Compared with children in the second year of life, a higher percentage of children 6 to 11 months of age consumed vegetables and a lower percentage consumed 100% juice, sugar-sweetened beverages, snacks, or sweets; with differences by race/Hispanic origin. These data may be relevant to the upcoming 2020-2025 federal dietary guidelines., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Background: To our knowledge, few studies have described the usual nutrient intakes of US children aged <2 y or assessed the nutrient adequacy of their diets relative to the recommended Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)., Objective: We estimated the usual nutrient intake of US children aged 6-23 mo examined in NHANES 2009-2012 and compared them to age-specific DRIs as applicable., Design: Dietary intake was assessed with two 24-h recalls for infants aged 6-11 mo (n = 381) and toddlers aged 12-23 mo (n = 516) with the use of the USDA's Automated Multiple-Pass Method. Estimates of usual nutrient intakes from food and beverages were obtained with the use of the National Cancer Institute method. The proportions of children with intakes below and above the DRI were also estimated., Results: The estimated usual intakes of infants were adequate for most nutrients; however, 10% had an iron intake below the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), and only 21% had a vitamin D intake that met or exceeded the recommended Adequate Intake (AI). More nutrient inadequacies were noted among toddlers; 1 in 4 had a lower-than-recommended fat intake (percentage of energy), and most had intakes that were below the EAR for vitamins E (82%) and D (74%). Few toddlers (<1%) met or exceeded the AI for fiber and potassium. In contrast, 1 in 2 had sodium intakes that exceeded the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL); ≥16% and 41% of the children had excessive intakes (greater than the ULs) of vitamin A and zinc, respectively., Conclusions: The estimated usual intakes of infants were adequate for most nutrients. Most toddlers were at risk for inadequate intakes of vitamins D and E and had diets low in fiber and potassium. The sources contributing to excessive intakes of vitamin A and zinc among infants and toddlers may need further evaluation., (© 2016 American Society for Nutrition.)

We examined consumption of different types of infant formula (eg, cow's milk, soy, gentle/lactose-reduced, and specialty) and regular milk among a nationally representative sample of 1864 infants, 0 to 12 months old, from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003-2010. Among the 81% of infants who were fed formula or regular milk, 69% consumed cow's milk formula, 12% consumed soy formula, 5% consumed gentle/ lactose-reduced formulas, 6% consumed specialty formulas, and 13% consumed regular milk products. There were differences by household education and income in the percentage of infants consuming cow's milk formula and regular milk products. The majority of infants in the United States who were fed formula or regular milk consumed cow's milk formula (69%), with lower percentages receiving soy, specialty, gentle/sensitive, or lactose-free/reduced formulas. Contrary to national recommendations, 13% of infants younger than 1 year consumed regular milk, and the percentage varied by household education and income levels., (© The Author(s) 2015.)

About one-third of U.S. youth consumed nuts on a given day in 2009–2012. Older youth were less likely to consume nuts than younger youth. More non-Hispanic white than non-Hispanic black or Hispanic youth consumed nuts. More youth living in households at or above 350% of the poverty level consumed nuts than youth in households below 130% poverty or at 130% up to 350% of the poverty level. Although previous guidance suggested that timing of the introduction of nuts into children’s diets may play a role in allergies, this guidance has recently been revised. There is a lack of evidence linking early introduction of nuts to development of allergy. This analysis did not include infants under the age of 1 year but did find that consumption of nuts was higher among younger children. More than one-third of nut consumption among youth (39.5%) occurs as a single-item food (i.e., not as an ingredient in other foods). Nuts are an alternate source of protein, especially for youth. Nuts are also high in mono- and polyunsaturated fats and fiber, and are a rich source of antioxidants such as selenium and vitamin E. Some nuts, especially walnuts and pumpkin seeds, are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Objectives: To describe the contribution of whole fruit, including discrete types of fruit, to total fruit consumption and to investigate differences in consumption by sociodemographic characteristics., Methods: We analyzed data from 3129 youth aged 2 to 19 years from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011 to 2012. Using the Food Patterns Equivalents Database and the What We Eat in America 150 food groups, we calculated the contribution of whole fruit, 100% fruit juices, mixed fruit dishes, and 12 discrete fruit and fruit juices to total fruit consumption. We examined differences by age, gender, race and Hispanic origin, and poverty status., Results: Nearly 90% of total fruit intake came from whole fruits (53%) and 100% fruit juices (34%) among youth aged 2 to 19 years. Apples, apple juice, citrus juice, and bananas were responsible for almost half of total fruit consumption. Apples accounted for 18.9% of fruit intake. Differences by age were predominately between youth aged 2 to 5 years and 6 to 11 years. For example, apples contributed a larger percentage of total fruit intake among youth 6 to 11 years old (22.4%) than among youth 2 to 5 years old (14.6%), but apple juice contributed a smaller percentage (8.8% vs 16.8%), P < .05. There were differences by race and Hispanic origin in intake of citrus fruits, berries, melons, dried fruit, and citrus juices and other fruit juices., Conclusions: These findings provide insight into what fruits US youth are consuming and sociodemographic factors that may influence consumption., (Copyright © 2015 by the American Academy of Pediatrics.)

Key Findings: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) and the NHANES National Youth Fitness Survey, 2012. Nearly all (98.5%) youth aged 12-15 reported watching TV daily. More than 9 in 10 (91.1%) youth aged 12-15 reported using the computer daily outside of school. In 2012, 27.0% of youth aged 12-15 had 2 hours or less of TV plus computer use daily. Among youth aged 12-15, girls (80.4%) were more likely to use the computer 2 hours or less daily when compared with boys (69.4%). Fewer non-Hispanic black youth aged 12-15 (53.4%) reported watching 2 hours or less of TV daily than non-Hispanic white (65.8%) and Hispanic (68.7%) youth. Excessive screen-time behaviors, such as using a computer and watching TV, for more than 2 hours daily have been linked with elevated blood pressure, elevated serum cholesterol, and being overweight or obese among youth (1-3). Additionally, screen-time behavior established in adolescence has been shown to track into adulthood (4). The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-supported Expert Panel and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend that children limit leisure screen time to 2 hours or less daily (5,6). This report presents national estimates of TV watching and computer use outside of the school day., (All material appearing in this report is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.)

Avian influenza virus (AIV) is enzootic to wild birds, which are its natural reservoir. The virus exhibits a large degree of genetic diversity and most of the isolated strains are of low pathogenicity to poultry. Although AIV is nearly ubiquitous in wild bird populations, highly pathogenic H5N1 subtypes in poultry have been the focus of most modeling efforts. To better understand viral ecology of AIV, a predictive model should 1) include wild birds, 2) include all isolated subtypes, and 3) cover the host's natural range, unbounded by artificial country borders. As of this writing, there are few large-scale predictive models of AIV in wild birds. We used the Random Forests algorithm, an ensemble data-mining machine-learning method, to develop a global-scale predictive map of AIV, identify important predictors, and describe the environmental niche of AIV in wild bird populations. The model has an accuracy of 0.79 and identified northern areas as having the highest relative predicted risk of outbreak. The primary niche was described as regions of low annual rainfall and low temperatures. This study is the first global-scale model of low-pathogenicity avian influenza in wild birds and underscores the importance of largely unstudied northern regions in the persistence of AIV.