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Lipid enals are electrophilic products of lipid peroxidation that induce genotoxic and proteotoxic stress by covalent modification of DNA and proteins, respectively. As lipid enals accumulate to substantial amounts in visceral adipose during obesity and aging, we hypothesized that biogenic lipid enals may represent an endogenously generated, and therefore physiologically relevant, senescence inducers. To that end, we identified that 4‐hydroxynonenal (4‐HNE), 4‐hydroxyhexenal (4‐HHE) or 4‐oxo‐2‐nonenal (4‐ONE) initiate the cellular senescence program of IMR90 fibroblasts and murine adipose stem cells. In such cells, lipid enals induced accumulation of γH2AX foci, increased p53 signaling, enhanced expression of p21Cip1, and upregulated the expression and secretion of numerous cytokines, chemokines, and regulatory factors independently from NF‐κB activation. Concomitantly, lipid enal treatment resulted in covalent modification of mitochondrial proteins, reduced mitochondrial spare respiratory capacity, altered nucleotide pools, and increased the phosphorylation of AMP kinase. Lipid‐induced senescent cells upregulated BCL2L1 (Bcl‐xL) and BCL2L2 (Bcl‐w). and were resistant to apoptosis while pharmacologic inhibition of BAX/BAK macropores attenuated lipid‐induced senescence. In situ, the 4‐HNE scavenger L‐carnosine ameliorated the development of the cellular senescence, while in visceral fat of obese C57BL/6J mice, L‐carnosine reduced the abundance of 4‐HNE‐modified proteins and blunted the expression of senescence biomarkers CDKN1A (p21Cip1), PLAUR, BCL2L1, and BCL2L2. Taken together, the results suggest that lipid enals are endogenous regulators of cellular senescence and that biogenic lipid‐induced senescence (BLIS) may represent a mechanistic link between oxidative stress and age‐dependent pathologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) facilitate the diffusion of fatty acids within cellular cytoplasm. Compared with C57B1/6J mice maintained on a high-fat diet, adipose-FABP (A-FABP) null mice exhibit increased fat mass, decreased lipolysis, increased muscle glucose oxidation, and attenuated insulin resistance, whereas overexpression of epithelial-FABP (E-FABP) in adipose tissue results in decreased fat mass, increased lipolysis, and potentiated insulin resistance. To identify the mechanisms that underlie these processes, real-time PCR analyses indicate that the expression of hormone-sensitive lipase is reduced, while perilipin A is increased in A-FABP/aP2 null mice relative to E-FABP overexpressing mice. In contrast, de novo lipogenesis and expression of genes encoding lipoprotein lipase, CD36, long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase 5, and diacylglycerol acyltransferase are increased in A-FABP/aP2 null mice relative to EFABP transgenic animals. Consistent with an increase in de novo lipogenesis, there was an increase in adipose C16:0 and C16:1 acyl-.CoA pools. There were no changes in serum free fatty acids between genotypes. Serum levels of resistin were decreased in the E-FABP transgenic mice, whereas serum and tissue adiponectin were increased in A-FABP/ aP2 null mice and decreased in E-FABP transgenic animals; leptin expression was unaffected. These results suggest that the balance between lipolysis and lipogenesis in adipocytes is remodeled in the FABP null and transgenic mice and is accompanied by the reprogramming of adipokine expression in fat cells and overall changes in plasma adipokines. fatty acids; adipocytes; adipokines

Chronic inflammation in obese adipose tissue is linked to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and systemic insulin resistance. Targeted deletion of the murine fatty acid binding protein (FABP4/aP2) uncouples obesity from inflammation although the mechanism underlying this finding has remained enigmatic. Here, we show that inhibition or deletion of FABP4/aP2 in macrophages results in increased intracellular free fatty acids (FFAs) and elevated expression of uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) without concomitant increases in UCP1 or UCP3. Silencing of UCP2 mRNA in FABP4/aP2-deficient macrophages negated the protective effect of FABP loss and increased ER stress in response to palmitate or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Pharmacologic inhibition of FABP4/aP2 with the FABP inhibitor HTS01037 also upregulated UCP2 and reduced expression of BiP, CHOP, and XBP-1s. Expression of native FABP4/aP2 (but not the non-fatty acid binding mutant R126Q) into FABP4/aP2 null cells reduced UCP2 expression, suggesting that the FABP-FFA equilibrium controls UCP2 expression. FABP4/aP2-deficient macrophages are resistant to LPS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and exhibit decreased mitochondrial protein carbonylation and UCP2-dependent reduction in intracellular reactive oxygen species. These data demonstrate that FABP4/aP2 directly regulates intracellular FFA levels and indirectly controls macrophage inflammation and ER stress by regulating the expression of UCP2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Obesity results in increased macrophage recruitment to adipose tissue that promotes a chronic low-grade inflammatory state linked to increased fatty acid efflux from adipocytes. Activated macrophages produce a variety of pro-inflammatory lipids such as leukotriene C4 (LTC4) and 5-, 12-, and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) suggesting the hypothesis that fatty acids may stimulate eicosanoid synthesis. To assess if eicosanoid production increases with obesity, adipose tissue of leptin deficient ob/ob mice was analyzed. In ob/ob mice, LTC4 and 12-HETE levels increased in the visceral (but not subcutaneous) adipose depot while the 5-HETE levels decreased and 15-HETE abundance was unchanged. Since macrophages produce the majority of inflammatory molecules in adipose tissue, treatment of RAW264.7 or primary peritoneal macrophages with free fatty acids led to increased secretion of LTC4 and 5-HETE, but not 12- or 15-HETE. Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) facilitate the intracellular trafficking of fatty acids and other hydrophobic ligands and in vitro stabilize the LTC4 precursor leukotriene A4 (LTA4) from non-enzymatic hydrolysis. Consistent with a role for FABPs in LTC4 synthesis, treatment of macrophages with HTS01037, a specific FABP inhibitor, resulted in a marked decrease in both basal and fatty acid-stimulated LTC4 secretion but no change in 5-HETE production or 5-lipoxygenase expression. These results indicate that the products of adipocyte lipolysis may stimulate the 5-lipoxygenase pathway leading to FABP-dependent production of LTC4 and contribute to the insulin resistant state. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Obesity results in increased macrophage recruitment to adipose tissue that promotes a chronic low-grade inflammatory state linked to increased fatty acid efflux from adipocytes. Activated macrophages produce a variety of pro-inflammatory lipids such as leukotriene C4 (LTC4) and 5-, 12-, and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) suggesting the hypothesis that fatty acids may stimulate eicosanoid synthesis. To assess if eicosanoid production increases with obesity, adipose tissue of leptin deficient ob/ob mice was analyzed. In ob/ob mice, LTC4 and 12-HETE levels increased in the visceral (but not subcutaneous) adipose depot while the 5-HETE levels decreased and 15-HETE abundance was unchanged. Since macrophages produce the majority of inflammatory molecules in adipose tissue, treatment of RAW264.7 or primary peritoneal macrophages with free fatty acids led to increased secretion of LTC4 and 5-HETE, but not 12- or 15-HETE. Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) facilitate the intracellular trafficking of fatty acids and other hydrophobic ligands and in vitro stabilize the LTC4 precursor leukotriene A4 (LTA4) from non-enzymatic hydrolysis. Consistent with a role for FABPs in LTC4 synthesis, treatment of macrophages with HTS01037, a specific FABP inhibitor, resulted in a marked decrease in both basal and fatty acid-stimulated LTC4 secretion but no change in 5-HETE production or 5-lipoxygenase expression. These results indicate that the products of adipocyte lipolysis may stimulate the 5-lipoxygenase pathway leading to FABP-dependent production of LTC4 and contribute to the insulin resistant state., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)