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Humankind has never been so populous, technically equipped, and economically and culturally integrated as it is today. In the twenty-first century, societies are confronted with a multitude of challenges in their efforts to manage the Earth system.

The availability, quality and accessibility of Geographic Information (GI) have significant socio-economic and environmental benefits, but the collection and maintenance of GI require substantial investments. Cost-benefit assessments (CBAs) attempt to justify the costs of geospatial data investments, applying different methodologies and focusing on diverse areas. Therefore, the Returns on Investment (ROI) vary considerably across studies, regions and sectors. The objective of this study is to explain some of the variation in the average ROI of GI by conducting a meta-analysis of 82 cost-benefit assessments between 1994 and 2013. In a first site, CBAs are systematically reviewed and relevant information is extracted. Particular emphasis is given to investment conditions and study characteristics. In a second step, multivariate regression methods are used to assess the size, significance and direction of individual effects. The results suggest that regional factors have the largest impact on the profitability of GI. Returns in Australia and New Zealand, for example, are four times larger than in Europe. In addition, small-scale regional investments have a 2.5 times lower return than large-scale international investments. Overall, the expected benefits of GI investments are approximately 3.2 times larger than the costs.

Efficient agricultural water management is indispensable in meeting future food demands. The European Water Framework Directive promotes several measures such as the adoption of adequate water pricing mechanisms or the promotion of water-saving irrigation technologies. We apply a stochastic dynamic programming model (SDPM) to analyze a farmer's optimal investment strategy to adopt a water-efficient drip irrigation system or a sprinkler irrigation system under uncertainty about future production conditions, i.e. about future precipitation patterns. We assess the optimal timing to invest into either irrigation system in the planning period 2010 to 2040. We then investigate how alternative policies, (a) irrigation water pricing, and (b) equipment subsidies for drip irrigation, affect the investment strategy. We perform the analysis for the semi-arid agricultural production region Marchfeld in Austria, and use data from the biophysical process simulation model EPIC (Environmental Policy Integrated Climate) which takes into account site and management related characteristics as well as weather parameters from a statistical climate change model. We find that investment in drip irrigation is unlikely unless subsidies for equipment cost are granted. Also water prices do not increase the probability to adopt a drip irrigation system, but rather delay the timing to invest into either irrigation system.

The vision of the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) is the achievement of societal benefits through voluntary contribution and sharing of data, metadata and products at no or minimum cost. Such undertakings, where contribution provides positive externalities, benefiting contributors and non-contributors alike, are often described as "social dilemmas," usually resulting in small levels of voluntary contribution. We investigate the benefits and challenges of voluntary contribution to GEOSS, surveying economic and game theoretic literature and examining how the concepts of social dilemmas apply to the provision of GEOSS. We conduct an exploratory survey among individuals involved in the Group on Earth Observation (GEO) to understand their perception of voluntarily contribution. Even though contribution to GEOSS was perceived as rather low, e.g. because of a perceived lack of funds, commitment or organization, survey respondents also perceived many (exclusive) benefits of contribution, e.g. networking, visibility for their work or collaborating with motivated individuals. To increase participation, respondents suggested increasing financial support and raising awareness of GEOSS. We conclude that communicating the efficacy of individuals' contributions, the personal benefits of contribution and strengthening of group identity and knowledge about fellow participants' work can constitute incentives for future voluntary contribution. This could be facilitated by an externally established institution providing a framework for cooperation, or by institutions, agreements or frameworks agreed upon by contributors themselves.

Climate change will affect agricultural production through changes in water supply, such that optimal irrigation management strategies gain importance. For the Marchfeld region, we firstly analyze with a stochastic dynamic programming approach the probability of investing into either a water-saving drip or a sprinkler irrigation system until 2040. Secondly, we develop optimal irrigation management portfolios for different degrees of risk aversion using climate data from a statistical model and the simulations for specific crops of the biophysical process model EPIC (Environmental Policy Integrated Climate). Investment in drip irrigation systems is not profitable. Sprinkler irrigation has a positive probability of being adopted for the production of sugar beets and carrots and therefore mostly shows a 100% share in the portfolio optimization.

Even though the efforts to contribute to and sustain the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) are voluntary, the derived benefits will be enjoyed by contributors and non-contributors alike. Thus, GEOSS can be classified as a public good, whose provision is prone to "free- riding". We analyze the benefits of participating in GEO (Group on Earth Observation) and GEOSS as well as the potential problems arising from voluntary contribution to GEOSS. We survey economic and game theoretic literature to see what type of problems, related to the provision of public goods, are described. Secondly, we conduct a survey among individuals involved in various GEOSS tasks, to find out about their perception, benefits and problems regarding GEO and GEOSS. First results show that benefits from participating in GEO include improved networking opportunities and visibility for work. Overall, contribution to GEOSS was perceived as rather low and lacking financial support was regarded as impediment.