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Hydrogels are particularly versatile materials that are widely found in both Nature and industry. One key reason for this versatility is their high water content, which lets them dramatically change their volume and many of their mechanical properties -- often by orders of magnitude -- as they swell and dry out. Currently, we lack techniques that can precisely characterize how these properties change with water content. To overcome this challenge, here we develop Gel-Freezing Osmometry (GelFrO): an extension of freezing-point osmometry. We show how GelFrO can measure a hydrogel's mechanical response to compression and osmotic pressure, while only using small, $O(100\mu$L$)$ samples. Because the technique allows measurement of properties over an unusually wide range of water contents, it allows us to accurately test theoretical predictions. We find simple, power-law behavior for both mechanical response to compression, and osmotic pressure, while these are not well-captured by classical Flory-Huggins theory. We interpret this power-law behavior as a hallmark of a microscopic fractal structure of the gel's polymer network, and propose a simple way to connect the gel's fractal dimension to its mechanical and osmotic properties. This connection is supported by observations of hydrogel microstructures using small-angle x-ray scattering. Finally, our results motivate us to propose an updated constitutive model describing hydrogel swelling, and mechanical response.

The Shuttleworth equation: a linear stress-strain relation ubiquitously used in modeling the behavior of soft surfaces. Its validity in the realm of materials subject to large deformation is a topic of current debate. Here, we allow for large deformation by deriving the constitutive behavior of the surface from the general framework of finite kinematics. We distinguish cases of finite and infinitesimal surface relaxation preceding an infinitesimal applied deformation. The Shuttleworth equation identifies as the Cauchy stress measure in the fully linearized setting. We show that both in finite and linearized cases, measured elastic constants depend on the utilized stress measure. In addition, we discuss the physical implications of our results and analyze the impact of surface relaxation on the estimation of surface elastic moduli in the light of two different test cases.

Bicontinuous microstructures are essential to the function of diverse natural and synthetic systems. Their synthesis has been based on two approaches: arrested phase separation or self-assembly of block copolymers. The former is attractive for its chemical simplicity, the latter for its thermodynamic robustness. Here, we introduce Elastic MicroPhase Separation (EMPS) as an alternative approach to make bicontinuous microstructures. Conceptually, EMPS balances the molecular-scale forces that drive demixing with large-scale elasticity to encode a thermodynamic length scale. This process features a continuous phase transition, reversible without hysteresis. Practically, we trigger EMPS by simply super-saturating an elastomeric matrix with a liquid. This results in uniform bicontinuous materials with a well-defined microscopic length-scale tuned by the matrix stiffness. The versatility and robustness of EMPS is further demonstrated by fabricating bicontinuous materials with superior mechanical properties and controlled anisotropy and microstructural gradients., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures

Fracture phenomena in soft materials span multiple length- and timescales. This poses a major challenge in computational modeling and predictive materials design. To pass quantitatively from molecular- to continuum scales, a precise representation of the material response at the molecular level is vital. Here, we derive the nonlinear elastic response and fracture characteristics of individual siloxane molecules using molecular dynamics (MD) studies. For short chains, we find deviations from classical scalings for both the effective stiffness and mean chain rupture times. A simple model of a non-uniform chain of Kuhn segments captures the observed effect and agrees well with MD data. We find that the dominating fracture mechanism depends on the applied force scale in a non-monotonic fashion. This analysis suggests that common polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) networks fail at crosslinking points. Our results can be readily lumped into coarse-grained models. Although focusing on PDMS as a model system, our study presents a general procedure to pass beyond the window of accessible rupture times in MD studies employing mean first passage time theory, which can be exploited for arbitrary molecular systems.

Inspired by the cellular design of plant tissue, we present a new approach to make versatile, tough, highly water-swelling composites. We embed highly swelling hydrogel particles inside tough, water-permeable, elastomeric matrices. The resulting composites, which we call \emph{hydroelastomers}, show little softening as they swell, and have excellent fracture properties that match those of the best-performing, tough hydrogels. Our composites are straightforward to fabricate, based on commercial materials, and can easily be molded or extruded to form shapes with complex swelling geometries. Furthermore, there is a large design space available for making hydroelastomers, since one can use any hydrogel as the dispersed phase in the composite, including hydrogels with stimuli-responsiveness. These features should make hydroelastomers excellent candidates for use in soft robotics and swelling-based actuation, or as shape-morphing materials, while also being useful as hydrogel replacements in a wide range of other fields.

We propose an approach to measure surface elastic constants of soft solids. Generally, this requires one to probe interfacial mechanics at around the elastocapillary length scale, which is typically microscopic. Deformations of microscopic droplets embedded in soft solids are particularly attractive, because they avoid intrinsic nonlinearities associated with previous experiments such as the equilibrium of contact lines and the relaxation of patterned surfaces. We derive analytical solutions for the shape of droplets under uniaxial deformation and for the radius of droplets upon hydrostatic inflation. We couple mechanical deformations to the dissolution of droplets to assess experimental sensitivities. Combined with experimental data from both modes of deformation, one should be able to reliably extract the complete set of isotropic surface material parameters following a specific minimization procedure.

When stretched in one direction, most solids shrink in the transverse directions. In soft silicone gels, however, we observe that small-scale topographical features grow upon stretching. A quantitative analysis of the topography shows that this counter-intuitive response is nearly linear, allowing us to tackle it through a small-strain analysis. We find that the surprising increase of small-scale topography with stretch is due to a delicate interplay of the bulk and surface responses to strain. Specifically, we find that surface tension changes as the material is deformed. This response is expected on general grounds for solid materials, but challenges the standard description of gel- and elastomer-surfaces., Comment: 10 pages,9 figures

The equilibrium contact angle of a droplet resting on a solid substrate can reveal essential properties of the solid's surface. However, when the motion of a droplet on a surface shows significant hysteresis, it is generally accepted that the solid's equilibrium properties cannot be determined. Here, we describe a method to measure surface tensions of soft solids with strong wetting hysteresis. With independent knowledge of the surface tension of the wetting fluid and the linear-elastic response of the solid, the solid deformations under the contact line and the contact angle of a single droplet together reveal the difference in surface tension of the solid against the liquid and vapor phases. If the solid's elastic properties are unknown, then this surface tension difference can be determined from the change in substrate deformations with contact angle. These results reveal an alternate equilibrium contact angle, equivalent to the classic form of Young-Dupr\'{e}, but with surface tensions in place of surface energies. We motivate and apply this approach with experiments on gelatin, a common hydrogel., Comment: 5 Figures

Anisotropically wetting substrates enable useful control of droplet behavior across a range of applications. Usually, these involve chemically or physically patterning the substrate surface, or applying gradients in properties like temperature or electrical field. Here, we show that a flat, stretched, uniform soft substrate also exhibits asymmetric wetting, both in terms of how droplets slide and in their static shape. Droplet dynamics are strongly affected by stretch: glycerol droplets on silicone substrates with a 23\% stretch slide 67\% faster in the direction parallel to the applied stretch than in the perpendicular direction. Contrary to classical wetting theory, static droplets in equilibrium appear elongated, oriented parallel to the stretch direction. Both effects arise from droplet-induced deformations of the substrate near the contact line., Comment: 3 figures

We present fully analytical solutions for the deformation of a stretched soft substrate due to the static wetting of a large liquid droplet, and compare our solutions to recently published experiments (Xu et al, Soft Matter 2018). Following a Green's function approach, we extend the surface-stress regularized Flamant-Cerruti problem to account for uniaxial pre-strains of the substrate. Surface profiles, including the heights and opening angles of wetting ridges, are provided for linearized and finite kinematics. We fit experimental wetting ridge shapes as a function of applied strain using two free parameters, the surface Lame coefficients. In comparison with experiments, we find that observed opening angles are more accurately captured using finite kinematics, especially with increasing levels of applied pre-strain. These fits qualitatively agree with the results of Xu et al, but revise values of the surface elastic constants.

We develop a mathematical model of information transmission across the biological neural network of the human brain. The overall function of the brain consists of the emergent processes resulting from the spread of information through the neural network. The capacity of the brain is therefore related to the rate at which it can transmit information through the neural network. The particular transmission model under consideration allows for information to be transmitted along multiple paths between points of the cortex. The resulting transmission rates are governed by potential theory. According to this theory, the brain has preferred and quantized transmission modes that correspond to eigenfunctions of the classical Steklov eigenvalue problem, with the reciprocal eigenvalues quantifying the corresponding transmission rates. We take the model as a basis for testing the hypothesis that the sulcus pattern of the human brain has evolved to maximize the rate of transmission of information between points in the cerebral cortex. We show that the introduction of sulci, or cuts, in an otherwise smooth domain indeed increases the overall transmission rate. We demonstrate this result by means of numerical experiments concerned with a spherical domain with a varying number of slits on its surface.

We investigate a method of selectively targeting cancer cells by means of ultrasound harmonic excitation at their resonance frequency, which we refer to as oncotripsy. The geometric model of the cells takes into account the cytoplasm, nucleus and nucleolus, as well as the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope. Material properties are varied within a pathophysiologically-relevant range. A first modal analysis reveals the existence of a spectral gap between the natural frequencies and, most importantly, resonant growth rates of healthy and cancerous cells. The results of the modal analysis are verified by simulating the fully-nonlinear transient response of healthy and cancerous cells at resonance. The fully nonlinear analysis confirms that cancerous cells can be selectively taken to lysis by the application of carefully tuned ultrasound harmonic excitation while simultaneously leaving healthy cells intact., Comment: 22 pages