1. Human gene regulatory evolution is driven by the divergence of regulatory element function in both cis and trans.
- Author
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Hansen, Tyler, Day, Jessica, Capra, John, Hodges, Emily, and Fong, Sarah
- Subjects
DNA regulatory elements ,chromatin accessibility ,comparative genomics ,enhancer activity ,functional genomics ,gene regulation ,human evolution ,lymphoblastoid cell lines ,massively parallel reporter assays ,transcription factors ,Animals ,Humans ,Macaca mulatta ,Regulatory Sequences ,Nucleic Acid ,Gene Expression Regulation ,Transcription Factors ,Chromatin - Abstract
Gene regulatory divergence between species can result from cis-acting local changes to regulatory element DNA sequences or global trans-acting changes to the regulatory environment. Understanding how these mechanisms drive regulatory evolution has been limited by challenges in identifying trans-acting changes. We present a comprehensive approach to directly identify cis- and trans-divergent regulatory elements between human and rhesus macaque lymphoblastoid cells using assay for transposase-accessible chromatin coupled to self-transcribing active regulatory region (ATAC-STARR) sequencing. In addition to thousands of cis changes, we discover an unexpected number (∼10,000) of trans changes and show that cis and trans elements exhibit distinct patterns of sequence divergence and function. We further identify differentially expressed transcription factors that underlie ∼37% of trans differences and trace how cis changes can produce cascades of trans changes. Overall, we find that most divergent elements (67%) experienced changes in both cis and trans, revealing a substantial role for trans divergence-alone and together with cis changes-in regulatory differences between species.
- Published
- 2024