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The Mars Express (MEX) Ion Mass Analyser (IMA) found that the detection rate of the ring-like distribution of protons in the solar wind outside of the bow shock to be quite different between Mars orbital summer (around perihelion) and orbital winter (around aphelion) for four Martian years, while the north–south asymmetry is much smaller than the perihelion–aphelion difference. Further analyses using eight years of MEX/IMA solar wind data between 2005 and 2012 has revealed that the detection frequency of the pick-up ions originating from newly ionized exospheric hydrogen with certain flux strongly correlates with the Sun–Mars distance, which changes approximately every two years. Variation due to the solar cycle phase is not distinguishable partly because this effect is masked by the seasonal variation under the MEX capability of plasma measurements. This finding indicates that the variation in solar UV has a major effect on the formation of the pick-up ions, but this is not the only controlling factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proficient fundamental movement skills ( FMS) are believed to form the basis of more complex movement patterns in sports. This study examined the development of the FMS of overhand throwing in children through either an error-reduced ( ER) or error-strewn ( ES) training program. Students ( n = 216), aged 8-12 years ( M = 9.16, SD = 0.96), practiced overhand throwing in either a program that reduced errors during practice ( ER) or one that was ES. ER program reduced errors by incrementally raising the task difficulty, while the ES program had an incremental lowering of task difficulty. Process-oriented assessment of throwing movement form ( Test of Gross Motor Development-2) and product-oriented assessment of throwing accuracy (absolute error) were performed. Changes in performance were examined among children in the upper and lower quartiles of the pretest throwing accuracy scores. ER training participants showed greater gains in movement form and accuracy, and performed throwing more effectively with a concurrent secondary cognitive task. Movement form improved among girls, while throwing accuracy improved among children with low ability. Reduced performance errors in FMS training resulted in greater learning than a program that did not restrict errors. Reduced cognitive processing costs (effective dual-task performance) associated with such approach suggest its potential benefits for children with developmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We present initial results from the first community-wide effort to compare global plasma interaction model results for Mars. Seven modeling groups participated in this activity, using MHD, multi-fluid, and hybrid assumptions in their simulations. Moderate solar wind and solar EUV conditions were chosen, and the conditions were implemented in the models and run to steady state. Model output was compared in three ways to determine how pressure was partitioned and conserved in each model, the location and asymmetry of plasma boundaries and pathways for planetary ion escape, and the total escape flux of planetary oxygen ions. The two participating MHD models provided similar results, while the five sets of multi-fluid and hybrid results were different in many ways. All hybrid results, however, showed two main channels for oxygen ion escape (a pickup ion ‘plume’ in the hemisphere toward which the solar wind convection electric field is directed, and a channel in the opposite hemisphere of the central magnetotail), while the MHD models showed one (a roughly symmetric channel in the central magnetotail). Most models showed a transition from an upstream region dominated by plasma dynamic pressure to a magnetosheath region dominated by thermal pressure to a low altitude region dominated by magnetic pressure. However, calculated escape rates for a single ion species varied by roughly an order of magnitude for similar input conditions, suggesting that the uncertainties in both the current and integrated escape over martian history as determined by models are large. These uncertainties are in addition to those associated with the evolution of the Sun, the martian dynamo, and the early atmosphere, highlighting the challenges we face in constructing Mars’ past using models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The analyser of space plasma and energetic atoms (ASPERA-3) neutral particle imager (NPI) on board Mars Express (MEX) is devoted to energetic neutral atom (ENA) detection within the Martian environment. These ENAs originate from the interaction between the energetic ions flowing inside the Martian environment and the exospheric neutral gas, thus providing crucial information about the dynamics of this interaction. NPI records the instantaneous angular distribution of the energy-integrated ENA signal. In order to identify recurrent ENA signals in the Martian environment, we have performed a statistical analysis of the NPI data. Count rates have been averaged using different methods in order to be able to discriminate signals coming from the planet, from a selected direction, or from specific planetographic regions at the planetary surface. Possible recurrent ENA signals (about 5×106 (cm2 srs)−1) are found coming from the terminator direction and above the atmosphere toward nightside when the spacecraft was inside the planetary shadow, mainly close to the shadow edge. Some significant signal was found from the anti-Mars directions in 2005. No statistically significant signal related to pick-up ions from the atmosphere or related to magnetic anomalies above the sensor intrinsic error (estimated as 3×106 (cm2 srs)−1) was observed. Our analysis shows that particular attention should be given to the use of NPI data when performing statistical studies; in fact, the sensor has some intrinsic limitations due to inadequate UV suppression, difficulties in sector inter-calibrations, and variations in the sector response versus time. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Atmospheric escape from the upper atmosphere of Venus is mainly influenced by the loss of hydrogen and oxygen caused by the interaction of solar radiation and particle flux with the unprotected planetary environment. Because one main aim of the ASPERA-4 particle/plasma and VEX-MAG magnetic field experiments on board of ESA''s forthcoming Venus Express mission is the investigation of atmospheric erosion processes from the planet''s ionosphere–exosphere environment, we study the total loss of hydrogen and oxygen and identified the efficiency of several escape mechanisms involved. For the estimation of pick up loss rates we use a gas dynamic test particle model and obtained average loss rates for , and pick up ions of about and about , respectively. Further, we estimate ion loss rates due to detached plasma clouds, which were observed by the pioneer Venus orbiter and may be triggered by the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability of about . Thermal atmospheric escape processes and atmospheric loss by photo-chemically produced oxygen atoms yield negligible loss rates. Sputtering by incident pick up ions give O atom loss rates in the order of about . On the other hand, photo-chemically produced hot hydrogen atoms are a very efficient loss mechanism for hydrogen on Venus with a global average total loss rate of about , which is in agreement with Donahue and Hartle [1992. Solar cycle variations in and densities in the Venus ionosphere: implications for escape. Geophys. Res. Lett. 12, 2449–2452] and of the same order but less than the estimated ion outflow on the Venus nightside of about due to acceleration by an outward electric polarization force related to ionospheric holes by Hartle and Grebowsky [1993. Light ion flow in the nightside ionosphere of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 7437–7445]. Our study indicates that on Venus, due to its larger mass and size compared to Mars, the most relevant atmospheric escape processes of oxygen involve ions and are caused by the interaction with the solar wind. The obtained results indicate that the ratio between H/O escape to space from the Venusian upper atmosphere is about 4, and is in a much better agreement with the stoichiometrically H/O escape ratio of 2:1, which is not the case on Mars. However, a detailed analysis of the outflow of ions from the Venus upper atmosphere by the ASPERA-4 and VEX-MAG instruments aboard Venus Express will lead to more accurate atmospheric loss estimations and a better understanding of the planet''s water inventory. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Although the Mars Express (MEX) does not carry a magnetometer, it is in principle possible to derive the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation from the three dimensional velocity distribution of pick-up ions measured by the Ion Mass Analyser (IMA) on board MEX because pick-up ions' orbits, in velocity phase space, are expected to gyrate around the IMF when the IMF is relatively uniform on a scale larger than the proton gyroradius. During bow shock outbound crossings, MEX often observed cycloid distributions (two dimensional partial ring distributions in velocity phase space) of protons in a narrow channel of the IMA detector (only one azimuth for many polar angles). We show two such examples. Three different methods are used to derive the IMF orientation from the observed cycloid distributions. One method is intuitive (intuitive method), while the others derive the minimum variance direction of the velocity vectors for the observed ring ions. These velocity vectors are selected either manually (manual method) or automatically using simple filters (automatic method). While the intuitive method and the manual method provide similar IMF orientations by which the observed cycloid distribution is well arranged into a partial circle (representing gyration) and constant parallel velocity, the automatic method failed to arrange the data to the degree of the manual method, yielding about a 30° offset in the estimated IMF direction. The uncertainty of the derived IMF orientation is strongly affected by the instrument resolution. The source population for these ring distributions is most likely newly ionized hydrogen atoms, which are picked up by the solar wind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on Rhinosinusitis. Rhinosinusitis is a significant health problem which seems to mirror the increasing frequency of allergic rhinitis and which results in a large financial burden on society. The last decade has seen the development of a number of guidelines, consensus documents and position papers on the epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of rhinosinusitis and nasal polyposis. The diagnosis of rhinosinusitis is made by a wide variety of practitioners, including allergologists, otolaryngologists, pulmonologists, primary care physicians and many others.