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Images created from measurements made by wireline microresistivity imaging tools have longitudinal gaps when the well circumference exceeds the total width of the pad-mounted electrode arrays. The gap size depends on the tool design and borehole size, and the null data in these gaps negatively affect the quantitative evaluation of reservoirs. Images with linear and texture features obtained from microresistivity image logs have distinct dual fabric features because of logging principles and various geological phenomena. Linear image features usually include phenomena such as fractures, bedding, and unconformities. Contrarily, texture-based image features usually indicate phenomena such as vugs and rock matrices. According to the characteristics of this fabric-based binary image structure and guided by the practice of geological interpretation, an adaptive inpainting method for the blank gaps in microresistivity image logs is proposed. For images with linear features, a sinusoidal tracking inpainting algorithm based on an evaluation of the validity and continuity of pixel sets is used. Contrarily, the most similar target transplantation algorithm is applied to texture-based images. The results obtained for measured electrical imaging data showed that the full borehole image obtained by the proposed method, whether it was a linear structural image reflecting fracture and bedding or texture-based image reflecting the matrix and pore of rock, had substantially good inpainting quality with enhanced visual connectivity. The proposed method was effective for inpainting electrical image logs with large gaps and high angle fractures with high heterogeneity. Moreover, ladder and block artifacts were rare, and the inpainting marks were not obvious. In addition, detailed full borehole images obtained by the proposed method will provide an essential basis for interpreting geological phenomena and reservoir parameters.

Cell aging is the result of deteriorating competence in maintaining cellular homeostasis and quality control. Certain cell types are able to rejuvenate through asymmetric cell division by excluding aging factors, including damaged cellular compartments and extra chromosomal rDNA circles, from entering the daughter cell. Recent findings from the budding yeast S. cerevisiae have shown that gametogenesis represents another type of cellular rejuvenation. Gametes, whether produced by an old or a young mother cell, are granted a renewed replicative lifespan through the formation of a fifth nuclear compartment that sequesters the harmful senescence factors accumulated by the mother. Here, we describe the importance and mechanism of cellular remodeling at the nuclear envelope mediated by ESCRT-III and the LEM-domain proteins, with a focus on nuclear pore biogenesis and chromatin interaction during gamete rejuvenation.

Cellular aging occurs as a cell loses its ability to maintain homeostasis. Aging cells eliminate damaged cellular compartments and other senescence factors via self-renewal. The mechanism that regulates cellular rejuvenation remains to be further elucidated. Using budding yeast gametogenesis as a model, we show here that the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) III regulates nuclear envelope organization. During gametogenesis, the nuclear pore complex (NPC) and other senescence factors are sequestered away from the prospore nuclei. We show that the LEM-domain protein Heh1 (Src1) facilitates the nuclear recruitment of ESCRT-III, which is required for meiotic NPC sequestration and nuclear envelope remodeling. Furthermore, ESCRT-III-mediated nuclear reorganization appears to be critical for gamete rejuvenation, as hindering this process curtails either directly or indirectly the replicative lifespan in gametes. Our findings demonstrate the importance of ESCRT-III in nuclear envelope remodeling and its potential role in eliminating senescence factors during gametogenesis.

Pseudouridine, the most abundant form of RNA modification, is known to play important roles in ribosome function. Mutations in human DKC1, the pseudouridine synthase responsible for catalyzing the ribosome RNA modification, cause translation deficiencies and are associated with a complex cancer predisposition. The structural basis for how pseudouridine impacts ribosome function remains uncharacterized. Here we characterized structures and conformations of a fully modified and a pseudouridine-free ribosome from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in absence of ligands or when bound with translocation inhibitor cycloheximide by electron cryomicroscopy. In the modified ribosome, the rearranged N1 atom of pseudouridine is observed to stabilize key functional motifs by establishing predominately water-mediated close contacts with the phosphate backbone. The pseudouridine-free ribosome, however, is devoid of such interactions and displays conformations reflective of abnormal inter-subunit movements. The erroneous motions of the pseudouridine-free ribosome may explain its observed deficiencies in translation.

How resident inner nuclear membrane (INM) proteins are turned over is unclear. Koch et al. identify an APC/C-dependent mechanism controlling the degradation of Mps3, a conserved integral protein of the INM., The nucleus is enclosed by the inner nuclear membrane (INM) and the outer nuclear membrane (ONM). While the ONM is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the INM is independent and separates the nucleoplasm from the ER lumen. Turnover of ER proteins has been well characterized by the ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD) pathway, but very little is known about turnover of resident INM proteins. Here we show that the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, regulates the degradation of Mps3, a conserved integral protein of the INM. Turnover of Mps3 requires the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme Ubc7, but was independent of the known ERAD ubiquitin ligases Doa10 and Hrd1 as well as the recently discovered Asi1–Asi3 complex. Using a genetic approach, we have found that Cdh1, a coactivator of APC/C, modulates Mps3 stability. APC/C controls Mps3 degradation through Mps3’s N terminus, which resides in the nucleoplasm and possesses two putative APC/C-dependent destruction motifs. Accumulation of Mps3 at the INM impairs nuclear morphological changes and cell division. Our findings therefore reveal an unexpected mechanism of APC/C-mediated protein degradation at the INM that coordinates nuclear morphogenesis and cell cycle progression.

The nucleus is enclosed by a double-membrane structure, the nuclear envelope, which separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), whereas the inner nuclear membrane (INM) is a specialized compartment with a unique proteome. In order to ensure compartmental homeostasis, INM-associated degradation (INMAD) is required for both protein quality control and regulated proteolysis of INM proteins. INMAD shares similarities with ER-associated degradation (ERAD). The mechanism of ERAD is well characterized, whereas the INMAD pathway requires further definition. Here we review the three different branches of INMAD, mediated by their respective E3 ubiquitin ligases: Doa10, Asi1-3, and APC/C. We clarify the distinction between ERAD and INMAD, their substrate recognition signals, and the subsequent processing by their respective degradation machineries. We also discuss the significance of cell-cycle and developmental regulation of protein clearance at the INM, and its relationship to human disease.

The canonical LINC complex is composed of two different transmembrane proteins; this work reveals the heterotrimeric composition of the telomere-associated LINC complex in budding yeast., The linker of the nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex is composed of two transmembrane proteins: the KASH domain protein localized to the outer nuclear membrane and the SUN domain protein to the inner nuclear membrane. In budding yeast, the sole SUN domain protein, Mps3, is thought to pair with either Csm4 or Mps2, two KASH-like proteins, to form two separate LINC complexes. Here, we show that Mps2 mediates the interaction between Csm4 and Mps3 to form a heterotrimeric telomere-associated LINC (t-LINC) complex in budding yeast meiosis. Mps2 binds to Csm4 and Mps3, and all three are localized to the telomere. Telomeric localization of Csm4 depends on both Mps2 and Mps3; in contrast, Mps2’s localization depends on Mps3 but not Csm4. Mps2-mediated t-LINC complex regulates telomere movement and meiotic recombination. By ectopically expressing CSM4 in vegetative yeast cells, we reconstitute the heterotrimeric t-LINC complex and demonstrate its ability to tether telomeres. Our findings therefore reveal the heterotrimeric composition of the t-LINC complex in budding yeast and have implications for understanding variant LINC complex formation.

The AAA + ATPase R2TP complex facilitates assembly of a number of ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs). Although the architecture of R2TP is known, its molecular basis for acting upon multiple RNPs remains unknown. In yeast, the core subunit of the box C/D small nucleolar RNPs, Nop58p, is the target for R2TP function. In the recently observed U3 box C/D snoRNP as part of the 90 S small subunit processome, the unfolded regions of Nop58p are observed to form extensive interactions, suggesting a possible role of R2TP in stabilizing the unfolded region of Nop58p prior to its assembly. Here, we analyze the interaction between R2TP and a Maltose Binding Protein (MBP)-fused Nop58p by biophysical and yeast genetics methods. We present evidence that R2TP interacts largely with the unfolded termini of Nop58p. Our results suggest a general mechanism for R2TP to impart specificity by recognizing unfolded regions in its clients.

The budding yeast centrosome, often called the spindle pole body (SPB), nucleates microtubules for chromosome segregation during cell division. An appendage, called the half bridge, attaches to one side of the SPB and regulates SPB duplication and separation. Like DNA, the SPB is duplicated only once per cell cycle. During meiosis, however, after one round of DNA replication, two rounds of SPB duplication and separation are coupled with homologue segregation in meiosis I and sister-chromatid segregation in meiosis II. How SPB duplication and separation are regulated during meiosis remains to be elucidated, and whether regulation in meiosis differs from that in mitosis is unclear. Here we show that overproduction of the half-bridge component Kar1 leads to premature SPB separation during meiosis. Furthermore, excessive Kar1 induces SPB overduplication to form supernumerary SPBs, leading to chromosome missegregation and erroneous ascospore formation. Kar1-­mediated SPB duplication bypasses the requirement of dephosphorylation of Sfi1, another half-bridge component previously identified as a licensing factor. Our results therefore reveal an unexpected role of Kar1 in licensing meiotic SPB duplication and suggest a unique mechanism of SPB regulation during budding yeast meiosis.

The nucleus is enclosed by the inner nuclear membrane (INM) and the outer nuclear membrane (ONM). While the ONM is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the INM is independent and separates the nucleoplasm from the ER lumen. To maintain INM homeostasis, proteins mislocalized to the INM are degraded by the ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD) pathway. However, the mechanism for turnover of resident INM proteins is less clear. Here we show that the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, regulates the degradation of Mps3, a conserved integral protein of the INM. Turnover of Mps3 requires the ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes Ubc7 and Ubc6, but not the three known ERAD ubiquitin ligases, Doa10, Hrd1, and the Asi1-Asi3 complex. Using a genetic approach, we have found that Cdh1, a coactivator of APC/C, modulates Mps3 stability. APC/C controls Mps3 degradation through Mps3’s N-terminus, which resides in the nucleoplasm and possesses two putative APC/C-dependent destruction motifs. Accumulation of Mps3 at the INM impairs nuclear morphological changes and cell division. Our findings therefore reveal an unexpected mechanism of APC/C-mediated protein quality control at the INM that coordinates nuclear morphogenesis and cell-cycle progression.

Condensin undergoes a sequestration, release, and reloading cycle at the rDNA array in budding yeast meiosis. It regulates rDNA stability by suppressing double-strand break (DSB) formation and promoting DSB processing., During meiosis, homologues are linked by crossover, which is required for bipolar chromosome orientation before chromosome segregation at anaphase I. The repetitive ribosomal DNA (rDNA) array, however, undergoes little or no meiotic recombination. Hyperrecombination can cause chromosome missegregation and rDNA copy number instability. We report here that condensin, a conserved protein complex required for chromosome organization, regulates double-strand break (DSB) formation and repair at the rDNA gene cluster during meiosis in budding yeast. Condensin is highly enriched at the rDNA region during prophase I, released at the prophase I/metaphase I transition, and reassociates with rDNA before anaphase I onset. We show that condensin plays a dual role in maintaining rDNA stability: it suppresses the formation of Spo11-mediated rDNA breaks, and it promotes DSB processing to ensure proper chromosome segregation. Condensin is unnecessary for the export of rDNA breaks outside the nucleolus but required for timely repair of meiotic DSBs. Our work reveals that condensin coordinates meiotic recombination with chromosome segregation at the repetitive rDNA sequence, thereby maintaining genome integrity.

Centrosomes organize microtubules and are essential for spindle formation and chromosome segregation during cell division. Duplicated centrosomes are physically linked, but how this linkage is dissolved remains unclear. Yeast centrosomes are tethered by a nuclear-envelope-attached structure called the half-bridge, whose components have mammalian homologues. We report here that cleavage of the half-bridge protein Mps3 promotes accurate centrosome disjunction in budding yeast. Mps3 is a single-pass SUN-domain protein anchored at the inner nuclear membrane and concentrated at the nuclear side of the half-bridge. Using the unique feature in yeast meiosis that centrosomes are linked for hours before their separation, we have revealed that Mps3 is cleaved at its nucleus-localized N-terminal domain, the process of which is regulated by its phosphorylation at serine 70. Cleavage of Mps3 takes place at the yeast centrosome and requires proteasome activity. We show that noncleavable Mps3 (Mps3-nc) inhibits centrosome separation during yeast meiosis. In addition, overexpression of mps3-nc in vegetative yeast cells also inhibits centrosome separation and is lethal. Our findings provide a genetic mechanism for the regulation of SUN-domain protein-mediated activities, including centrosome separation, by irreversible protein cleavage at the nuclear periphery., Author summary The nucleus, where the eukaryotic chromosomes are stored, is enclosed by a double-membrane structure called the nuclear envelope. Located at the inner nuclear membrane, a class of highly conserved proteins called SUN-domain proteins regulates a range of nuclear activities at the nuclear periphery, including tethering the centrosomes to the nuclear membranes. Defective SUN-domain proteins have been linked to certain types of muscular dystrophy and premature aging in humans. In this study, we use budding yeast as a model and show that its sole SUN-domain protein, Mps3, a key component of the yeast centrosome, is phosphorylated and then subject to proteolytic cleavage in order to properly split the centrosomes before spindle formation and chromosome segregation. Understanding how SUN-domain proteins are posttranslationally modified can shed light on the regulation of centrosome separation; it also provides insight into the homeostasis of SUN-domain proteins that are associated with many human diseases of the nuclear envelope.

In this chapter, we describe a quantitative fluorescence-based assay of gene expression using the ratio of the reporter green fluorescence protein (GFP) to the internal red fluorescence protein (RFP) control. With this dual-color heterologous reporter assay, we have revealed cohesin-regulated genes and discovered a cis-acting DNA element, the Ty1-LTR, which interacts with cohesin and regulates gene expression during yeast meiosis. The method described here provides an effective cytological approach for quantitative analysis of global gene expression in budding yeast meiosis.

A prerequisite for determination of chromosome dynamics in live cells is development of a method for staining or marking the chromosome of interest. We describe here a unique chromosome-tracking system that differentially marks two large chromosome segments from homologs in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using yeast genetics and the special features at the repetitive ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene cluster, we incorporated arrays of the tet operator and the lac operator into each repeat of the two rDNA homologs by homologous recombination. Expression of tet repressor-fused green fluorescent protein and lac repressor-fused red fluorescent protein in engineered cells led to the differential labeling of rDNA homologs. Using live-cell three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy, we showed that homologs undergo contraction and expansion cycles in an actin-dependent manner during meiosis and that chromosome mobility appears to be correlated with nuclear positioning. Our observations further revealed that, in contrast to mitosis, in meiosis the yeast nucleolus, the site of rRNA processing, was disassembled upon anaphase onset, suggesting a differential regulation of the rDNA array during meiotic chromosome segregation. Because rRNA genes are highly conserved, a similar chromosome-engineering approach may be adaptable in other eukaryotes for functional assays of chromosome organization in live cells.

Meiotic Scc2 recruits cohesin to the chromosome for two important functions: activation of gene expression and mediation of sister-chromatid cohesion. This study reveals that cohesin positively regulates transcription in a position-dependent manner. Therefore cohesin can also act as a transcriptional activator in budding yeast., To tether sister chromatids, a protein-loading complex, including Scc2, recruits cohesin to the chromosome at discrete loci. Cohesin facilitates the formation of a higher-order chromosome structure that could also influence gene expression. How cohesin directly regulates transcription remains to be further elucidated. We report that in budding yeast Scc2 is required for sister-chromatid cohesion during meiosis for two reasons. First, Scc2 is required for activating the expression of REC8, which encodes a meiosis-specific cohesin subunit; second, Scc2 is necessary for recruiting meiotic cohesin to the chromosome to generate sister-chromatid cohesion. Using a heterologous reporter assay, we have found that Scc2 increases the activity of its target promoters by recruiting cohesin to establish an upstream cohesin-associated region in a position-dependent manner. Rec8-associated meiotic cohesin is required for the full activation of the REC8 promoter, revealing that cohesin has a positive feedback on transcriptional regulation. Finally, we provide evidence that chromosomal binding of cohesin is sufficient for target-gene activation during meiosis. Our data support a noncanonical role for cohesin as a transcriptional activator during cell differentiation.

Sister-chromatid cohesion mediated by cohesin ensures proper chromosome segregation during cell division. Cohesin is also required for postreplicative DNA double-strand break repair and gene expression. The molecular mechanisms of these diverse cohesin functions remain to be elucidated. Here we report that the cohesin subunits Scc3 and Smc1 are both required for the production of the meiosis-specific subunit Rec8 in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using a genetic approach, we depleted Scc3 and Smc1 independently in cells that were undergoing meiosis. Both Scc3- and Smc1-depleted cells were inducible for meiosis, but the REC8 promoter was only marginally activated, leading to reduced levels of REC8 transcription and protein production. In contrast, the expression of MCD1, the mitotic counterpart of REC8, was not subject to Scc3 regulation in vegetative cells. We provide genetic evidence to show that sister-chromatid cohesion is not necessary for activation of REC8 gene expression. Cohesin appears to positively regulate the expression of a variety of genes during yeast meiosis. Our results suggest that the cohesin complex plays a dual role in gene regulation and sister-chromatid cohesion during meiotic differentiation in yeast.

The condensin complex is a key determinant of higher-ordered chromosome structure. We show here that the complex is also important for the correct alignment of chromosomes on the meiosis I spindle. Unlike during mitosis and meiosis II, when sister chromatids attach to microtubules emanating from opposite spindle poles (biorientation), accurate meiosis I chromosome segregation requires that sister chromatids attach to microtubules emanating from the same spindle pole (coorientation). The monopolin complex, consisting of Lrs4, Csm1, and the meiosis-specific component Mam1, brings about meiosis I coorientation. We find that in the absence of functional condensin complexes, a fraction of sister kinetochores biorient on the meiosis I spindle and association of the monopolin complex subunit Mam1 with kinetochores is decreased. Our studies uncover a new locus-specific effect of the condensin complex.

Homologue segregation during the first meiotic division requires the proper spatial regulation of sister chromatid cohesion and its dissolution along chromosome arms, but its protection at centromeric regions. This protection requires the conserved MEI-S332/Sgo1 proteins that localize to centromeric regions and also recruit the PP2A phosphatase by binding its regulatory subunit, Rts1. Centromeric Rts1/PP2A then locally prevents cohesion dissolution possibly by dephosphorylating the protein complex cohesin. We show that Aurora B kinase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Ipl1) is also essential for the protection of meiotic centromeric cohesion. Coupled with a previous study in Drosophila melanogaster, this meiotic function of Aurora B kinase appears to be conserved among eukaryotes. Furthermore, we show that Sgo1 recruits Ipl1 to centromeric regions. In the absence of Ipl1, Rts1 can initially bind to centromeric regions but disappears from these regions after anaphase I onset. We suggest that centromeric Ipl1 ensures the continued centromeric presence of active Rts1/PP2A, which in turn locally protects cohesin and cohesion.

Condensin is an evolutionarily conserved protein complex that helps mediate chromosome condensation and segregation in mitotic cells. Here, we show that condensin has two activities that contribute to meiotic chromosome condensation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. One activity, common to mitosis, helps mediate axial length compaction. A second activity promotes chromosome individualization with the help of Red1 and Hop1, two meiotic specific components of axial elements. Like Red1 and Hop1, condensin is also required for efficient homologue pairing and proper processing of double strand breaks. Consistent with these functional links condensin is necessary for proper chromosomal localization of Red1 and Hop1 and the subsequent assembly of the synaptonemal complex. Finally, condensin has a Red1/Hop1-independent role in the resolution of recombination-dependent linkages between homologues in meiosis I. The existence of distinct meiotic activities of condensin (axial compaction, individualization, and resolution of recombination-dependent links) provides an important framework to understand condensin's role in both meiotic and mitotic chromosome structure and function.

A refined spindle pole body (SPB) affinity purification method reveals that the telomere-associated protein Ndj1 also localizes to yeast SPBs, protects them from premature separation, and therefore regulates both SPB cohesion and telomere clustering during meiosis., Yeast centrosomes (called spindle pole bodies [SPBs]) remain cohesive for hours during meiotic G2 when recombination takes place. In contrast, SPBs separate within minutes after duplication in vegetative cells. We report here that Ndj1, a previously known meiosis-specific telomere-associated protein, is required for protecting SPB cohesion. Ndj1 localizes to the SPB but dissociates from it ∼16 min before SPB separation. Without Ndj1, meiotic SPBs lost cohesion prematurely, whereas overproduction of Ndj1 delayed SPB separation. When produced ectopically in vegetative cells, Ndj1 caused SPB separation defects and cell lethality. Localization of Ndj1 to the SPB depended on the SUN domain protein Mps3, and removal of the N terminus of Mps3 allowed SPB separation and suppressed the lethality of NDJ1-expressing vegetative cells. Finally, we show that Ndj1 forms oligomeric complexes with Mps3, and that the Polo-like kinase Cdc5 regulates Ndj1 protein stability and SPB separation. These findings reveal the underlying mechanism that coordinates yeast centrosome dynamics with meiotic telomere movement and cell cycle progression.

Kinetochores are large protein complexes that bind to centromeres. By interacting with microtubules and their associated motor proteins, kinetochores both generate and regulate chromosome movement. Kinetochores also function in the spindle checkpoint; a surveillance mechanism that ensures that metaphase is complete before anaphase begins. Although the ultrastructure of plant kinetochores has been known for many years, only recently have specific kinetochore proteins been identified. The recent data indicate that plant kinetochores contain homologs of many of the proteins implicated in animal and fungal kinetochore function, and that the plant kinetochore is a redundant structure with distinct biochemical subdomains.

Kinetochores can be thought of as having three major functions in chromosome segregation: (a) moving plateward at prometaphase; (b) participating in spindle checkpoint control; and (c) moving poleward at anaphase. Normally, kinetochores cooperate with opposed sister kinetochores (mitosis, meiosis II) or paired homologous kinetochores (meiosis I) to carry out these functions. Here we exploit three- and four-dimensional light microscopy and the maize meiotic mutant absence of first division 1 (afd1) to investigate the properties of single kinetochores. As an outcome of premature sister kinetochore separation in afd1 meiocytes, all of the chromosomes at meiosis II carry single kinetochores. Approximately 60% of the single kinetochore chromosomes align at the spindle equator during prometaphase/metaphase II, whereas acentric fragments, also generated by afd1, fail to align at the equator. Immunocytochemistry suggests that the plateward movement occurs in part because the single kinetochores separate into half kinetochore units. Single kinetochores stain positive for spindle checkpoint proteins during prometaphase, but lose their staining as tension is applied to the half kinetochores. At anaphase, ∼6% of the kinetochores develop stable interactions with microtubules (kinetochore fibers) from both spindle poles. Our data indicate that maize meiotic kinetochores are plastic, redundant structures that can carry out each of their major functions in duplicate.

We have identified a maize homologue of yeast MAD2, an essential component in the spindle checkpoint pathway that ensures metaphase is complete before anaphase begins. Combined immunolocalization of MAD2 and a recently cloned maize CENPC homologue indicates that MAD2 localizes to an outer domain of the prometaphase kinetochore. MAD2 staining was primarily observed on mitotic kinetochores that lacked attached microtubules; i.e., at prometaphase or when the microtubules were depolymerized with oryzalin. In contrast, the loss of MAD2 staining in meiosis was not correlated with initial microtubule attachment but was correlated with a measure of tension: the distance between homologous or sister kinetochores (in meiosis I and II, respectively). Further, the tension-sensitive 3F3/2 phosphoepitope colocalized, and was lost concomitantly, with MAD2 staining at the meiotic kinetochore. The mechanism of spindle assembly (discussed here with respect to maize mitosis and meiosis) is likely to affect the relative contributions of attachment and tension. We support the idea that MAD2 is attachment-sensitive and that tension stabilizes microtubule attachments.

Neocentromere activity is a classic example of nonkinetochore chromosome movement. In maize, neocentromeres are induced by a gene or genes on Abnormal chromosome 10 (Ab10) which causes heterochromatic knobs to move poleward at meiotic anaphase. Here we describe experiments that test how neocentromere activity affects the function of linked centromere/kinetochores (kinetochores) and whether neocentromeres and kinetochores are mobilized on the spindle by the same mechanism. Using a newly developed system for observing meiotic chromosome congression and segregation in living maize cells, we show that neocentromeres are active from prometaphase through anaphase. During mid-anaphase, normal chromosomes move on the spindle at an average rate of 0.79 μm/min. The presence of Ab10 does not affect the rate of normal chromosome movement but propels neocentromeres poleward at rates as high as 1.4 μm/min. Kinetochore-mediated chromosome movement is only marginally affected by the activity of a linked neocentromere. Combined in situ hybridization/immunocytochemistry is used to demonstrate that unlike kinetochores, neocentromeres associate laterally with microtubules and that neocentromere movement is correlated with knob size. These data suggest that microtubule depolymerization is not required for neocentromere motility. We argue that neocentromeres are mobilized on microtubules by the activity of minus end–directed motor proteins that interact either directly or indirectly with knob DNA sequences.

Centrosomes are microtubule-organizing centers that nucleate spindle microtubules during cell division. In budding yeast, the centrosome, often referred to as the spindle pole body, shares structural components with the centriole, the central core of the animal centrosome. The parental centrosome is duplicated when DNA replication takes place. Like sister chromatids tethered together by cohesin, duplicated centrosomes are linked and then separate to form the bipolar spindle necessary for chromosome segregation. Recent studies have shown that cohesin is also localized to the animal centrosome and is perhaps directly involved in engaging paired centrioles. Here we discuss the potential role of cohesin in mediating spindle-pole-body cohesion in the context of yeast meiosis. We propose that the coordination of chromosome segregation with centrosome cohesion and duplication is mediated by the antagonistic interaction between the Aurora kinase and the Polo kinase and that the role of cohesin in centrosome regulation appears to be indirect in budding yeast.

The attachment of sister kinetochores by microtubules emanating from opposite spindle poles establishes chromosome bipolar attachment, which generates tension on chromosomes and is essential for sister-chromatid segregation. Syntelic attachment occurs when both sister kinetochores are attached by microtubules from the same spindle pole and this attachment is unable to generate tension on chromosomes, but a reliable method to induce syntelic attachments is not available in budding yeast. The spindle checkpoint can sense the lack of tension on chromosomes as well as detached kinetochores to prevent anaphase onset. In budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, tension checkpoint proteins Aurora/Ipl1 kinase and centromere-localized Sgo1 are required to sense the absence of tension but are dispensable for the checkpoint response to detached kinetochores. We have found that the loss of function of a motor protein complex Cik1/Kar3 in budding yeast leads to syntelic attachments. Inactivation of either the spindle or tension checkpoint enables premature anaphase entry in cells with dysfunctional Cik1/Kar3, resulting in co-segregation of sister chromatids. Moreover, the abolished Kar3-kinetochore interaction in cik1 mutants suggests that the Cik1/Kar3 complex mediates chromosome movement along microtubules, which could facilitate bipolar attachment. Therefore, we can induce syntelic attachments in budding yeast by inactivating the Cik1/Kar3 complex, and this approach will be very useful to study the checkpoint response to syntelic attachments., Author Summary Chromosome bipolar attachment occurs when sister chromatids are attached by microtubules emanating from opposite spindle poles and is essential for faithful sister-chromatid segregation. Chromosomes are under tension once bipolar attachment is established. The absence of tension is sensed by the tension checkpoint that prevents chromosome segregation. The attachment of sister chromatids by microtubules from the same spindle pole generates syntelic attachment, which fails to generate tension on chromosomes. However, a reliable method to induce syntelic attachment is not available. Our findings indicate that the inactivation of the motor complex, Cik1/Kar3, results in chromosomes with syntelic attachment in budding yeast. In the absence of the tension checkpoint, yeast cells with dysfunctional Cik1/Kar3 enter anaphase, resulting in co-segregation of sister chromatids. Therefore, with this method we can experimentally induce syntelic attachment in yeast and investigate how cells respond to this incorrect attachment.

In budding yeast, the microtubule-organizing center is called the spindle pole body (SPB) and shares structural components with the centriole, the central core of the animal centrosome. During meiotic interphase I, the SPB is duplicated when DNA replication takes place. Duplicated SPBs are linked and then separate to form a bipolar spindle required for homolog separation in meiosis I. During interphase II, SPBs are duplicated again, in the absence of DNA replication, to form four SPBs that establish two spindles for sister-chromatid separation in meiosis II. Here, we report that the Aurora kinase Ipl1, which is necessary for sister-chromatid cohesion, is also required for maintenance of a tight association between duplicated SPBs during meiosis, which we term SPB cohesion. Premature loss of cohesion leads to SPB overduplication and the formation of multipolar spindles. By contrast, the Polo-like kinase Cdc5 is necessary for SPB duplication and interacts antagonistically with Ipl1 at the meiotic SPB to ensure proper SPB separation. Our data suggest that Ipl1 coordinates SPB dynamics with the two chromosome segregation cycles during yeast meiosis.

A meiosis-conditional pds5 allele in yeast provides a more detailed understanding of homologue pairing and synaptonemal complex formation., During meiosis, homologues become juxtaposed and synapsed along their entire length. Mutations in the cohesin complex disrupt not only sister chromatid cohesion but also homologue pairing and synaptonemal complex formation. In this study, we report that Pds5, a cohesin-associated protein known to regulate sister chromatid cohesion, is required for homologue pairing and synapsis in budding yeast. Pds5 colocalizes with cohesin along the length of meiotic chromosomes. In the absence of Pds5, the meiotic cohesin subunit Rec8 remains bound to chromosomes with only minor defects in sister chromatid cohesion, but sister chromatids synapse instead of homologues. Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed but are not repaired efficiently. In addition, meiotic chromosomes undergo hypercondensation. When the mitotic cohesin subunit Mcd1 is substituted for Rec8 in Pds5-depleted cells, chromosomes still hypercondense, but synapsis of sister chromatids is abolished. These data suggest that Pds5 modulates the Rec8 activity to facilitate chromosome morphological changes required for homologue synapsis, DSB repair, and meiotic chromosome segregation.

Since it was first identified in Drosophila as a centromeric protein, MEI-S332/Shugoshin (Sgo1) has been an enigma. It is neither a kinase nor a phosphatase, but Sgo1's many functions are often attributable to protein-protein interactions that require Sgo1's presence to localize and/or function properly in a timely manner. Though much has been reported about Sgo1's role in ensuring proper genome segregation through its regulatory role in maintaining cohesion through protection of centromeric cohesin, several additional functions have been identified that are less well characterized. In higher eukaryotes Sgo2 and a splice variant of Sgo1 make up a small family of shugoshin proteins, whereas in budding yeast a single Sgo1 exists, and available data suggest that the many functions carried out by Sgo2 and the splice variant are handled exclusively by the Sgo1 homolog in yeast. In fact, the function of the mammalian splice variant is the factor that has revealed a new possible role for shugoshin in centrosome regulation, which may be related mechanistically to its task in protection of centromeric cohesin. New evidence in budding yeast supports this line of reasoning, which may represent an exciting new advance in exposing the myriad faces of the guardian spirit.

Knowledge management is the source for software enterprises to gain the sustainable competitive advantage. And knowledge system is a required work with strategic significance. So the purpose of this study is to investigate a knowledge system for software development. In this paper, a knowledge system is constructed for software development, which considers the demand of knowledge during the course of software development. Firstly, the concept and construction course of knowledge system are described. Then, a matrix model based on software development stages/roles is proposed, which is used to construct the knowledge system. Based on the matrix model, a two-dimensional knowledge system is constructed for different stages/roles. A description model of knowledge considering subject and object is also developed.

During meiosis, segregation of homologous chromosomes necessitates the coordination of sister chromatid cohesion, chromosome condensation, and recombination. Cohesion and condensation require the SMC complexes, cohesin and condensin, respectively. Here we use budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to show that condensin and Cdc5, a Polo-like kinase, facilitate the removal of cohesin from chromosomes prior to the onset of anaphase I when homologs segregate. This cohesin removal is critical for homolog segregation because it helps dissolve the recombination-dependent links between homologs that form during prophase I. Condensin enhances the association of Cdc5 with chromosomes and its phosphorylation of cohesin, which in turn likely stimulates cohesin removal. Condensin/Cdc5-dependent removal of cohesin underscores the potential importance of crosstalk between chromosome structural components in chromosome morphogenesis and provides a mechanism to couple chromosome morphogenesis with other meiotic events.

In eukaryotic cells, cohesin holds sister chromatids together until they separate into daughter cells during mitosis. We have used chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with microarray analysis (ChIP chip) to produce a genome-wide description of cohesin binding to meiotic and mitotic chromosomes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A computer program, PeakFinder, enables flexible, automated identification and annotation of cohesin binding peaks in ChIP chip data. Cohesin sites are highly conserved in meiosis and mitosis, suggesting that chromosomes share a common underlying structure during different developmental programs. These sites occur with a semiperiodic spacing of 11 kb that correlates with AT content. The number of sites correlates with chromosome size; however, binding to neighboring sites does not appear to be cooperative. We observed a very strong correlation between cohesin sites and regions between convergent transcription units. The apparent incompatibility between transcription and cohesin binding exists in both meiosis and mitosis. Further experiments reveal that transcript elongation into a cohesin-binding site removes cohesin. A negative correlation between cohesin sites and meiotic recombination sites suggests meiotic exchange is sensitive to the chromosome structure provided by cohesin. The genome-wide view of mitotic and meiotic cohesin binding provides an important framework for the exploration of cohesins and cohesion in other genomes.

Genes for three maize homologs (CenpcA, CenpcB, and CenpcC) of the conserved kinetochore assembly protein known as centromere protein C (CENPC) have been identified. The C-terminal portion of maize CENPC shares similarity with mammalian CENPC and its yeast homolog Mif2p over a 23-amino acid region known as region I. Immunolocalization experiments combined with three-dimensional light microscopy demonstrated that CENPC is a component of the kinetochore throughout interphase, mitosis, and meiosis. It is shown that sister kinetochore separation occurs in two discrete phases during meiosis. A partial separation of sister kinetochores occurs in prometaphase I, and a complete separation occurs in prometaphase II. CENPC is absent on structures known as neocentromeres that, in maize, demonstrate poleward movement but lack other important features of centromeres/kinetochores. CENPC and a previously identified centromeric DNA sequence interact closely but do not strictly colocalize on meiotic chromosomes. These and other data indicate that CENPC occupies an inner domain of the maize kinetochore.