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Die bei der Umformung der Gesichtswulste entstandenen beiden Riechgruben werden zu den primaren Nasenhohlen umgestaltet; die Riechgruben wachsen zunachst nach dorsokaudal und sind durch die Membrana buccopharyngea (Oronasalmembran) von der Mundhohle getrennt.

Die Gestalt der Lippen geht auf die Herkunft aus verschiedenen Gesichtswulsten zuruck (4. Embryonalwoche).

Die obere Halfte des Zungenbeins inkl. kleines Zungenbeinhorn gehen aus dem 2. Kiemenbogen (Hyoidbogen, Reichert-Knorpel) hervor.

Die Speicheldrusen entstehen in der 6. und 7. Embryonalwoche als Epithelsprossen aus der ektodermalen Mundbucht.

Der VII. Hirnnerv hat als Nerv des 2. Kiemenbogens (Hyoidbogen, Reichert-Knorpel) 2 Anteile: N. facialis, N. intermedius → Bezeichnung als N. facialis oder N. intermediofacialis Der N. facialis innerviert die mimische Muskulatur und andere aus dem 2. Kiemenbogen hervorgegangene Muskeln Verlauf des N. facialis: Kerngebiet in der Rautengrube → Wurzelfasern winden sich um den Kern des VI. Hirnnervs (inneres Fazialisknie) → Austritt im Kleinhirnbruckenwinkel → Eintritt in das Felsenbein durch Porus und Meatus acusticus internus (zusammen mit VIII. Hirnnerv) → horizontaler Verlauf bis zum Ggl. geniculi (auseres Fazialisknie) → Abknickung nach kaudal → weiterer Verlauf im knochernen Fazialiskanal (Canalis Fallopii) der medialen Paukenhohlenwand → Austritt am Foramen stylomastoideum N. intermedius fuhrt die sensorischen, sensiblen und parasympathischen Anteile des 2. Kiemenbogennervs

26. Tag: Entwicklung des unteren Respirationstrakts nach Auftreten einer Furche (Laryngotrachealrinne) am Boden des Vorderdarms

Background In this viewpoint representatives of the Teaching Commission of the Anatomical Society summarize their teaching experiences gained during the COVID-19 pandemic in the summer term of 2020 and derive first recommendations concerning face-to-face and remote teaching of anatomy for the future. Methods Representatives of the Teaching Commission of the Anatomical Society met virtually, exchanged experiences and summarized them in writing and answered a short questionnaire. Results The required transition to remote learning during summer term of 2020 was possible, but revealed technical shortcomings and major deficits concerning practical hands-on teaching. Conclusion The Teaching Commission of the Anatomical Society recommends that universities should follow the idea of as much face-to-face teaching as possible and as much online teaching as necessary for future terms.

The femoral vein (FV) is a clinically important vessel. Failure of its valves can lead to chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) with severe manifestations such as painful ulcers. Although they are crucial for identifying suitable implant sites for therapeutic valves, studies on the topography of FV tributaries and valves are rare. Moreover, the femoral vein diameter (FVD) must be known to assess the morphometric requirements for valve implants. To reassess the anatomical requirements for valve implants, 155 FVs from 82 human corpses were examined. FVDs and tributary and valve topographies were assessed using a laboratory straightedge. The FVD increased from 6 mm in the distal femoropopliteal vein to 11 mm in the iliofemoral vein proximal to the saphenofemoral junction (SFJ). Diameters were significantly bigger in males than females. Height correlated positively with FVD. Distal to the SFJ, within a distance of 38 cm, one to eight valves were present. Up to two valves were present within 10 cm proximal to the SFJ. Individual tributary and valve topography must be considered to ensure appropriate design and successful implantation of a venous valve for CVI therapy in the FV. A suitable implant site would be proximal to the SFJ via an infrainguinal transfemoral access. Clin. Anat. 31:1065-1076, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Objective: Trefoil factor family peptide 3 (TFF3) has been shown to support catabolic functions in cases of osteoarthritis (OA). As in joint physiology and diseases such as OA, the synovial membrane (SM) of the joint capsule also plays a central role. We analyze the ability of SM to produce TFF compare healthy SM and its secretion product synovial fluid (SF) with SM and SF from patients suffering from OA or rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methods: Real-time PCR and ELISA were used to measure the expression of TFFs in healthy SM and SM from patients suffering from OA or RA. For tissue localization, we investigated TFF1-3 in differently aged human SM of healthy donors by means of immunohistochemistry, real-time PCR and Western blot. Results: Only TFF3 but not TFF1 and -2 was expressed in SM from healthy donors as well as cases of OA or RA on protein and mRNA level. In contrast, all three TFFs were detected in all samples of SF on the protein level. No significant changes were observed for TFF1 at all. TFF2 was significantly upregulated in RA samples in comparison to OA samples. TFF3 protein was significantly downregulated in OA samples in comparison to healthy samples and cases of RA significantly upregulated compared to OA. In contrast, in SM TFF3 protein was not significantly regulated. Conclusion: The data demonstrate the production of TFF3 in SM. Unexpectedly, SF contains all three known TFF peptides. As neither articular cartilage nor SM produce TFF1 and TFF2, we speculate that these originate with high probability from blood serum.

Introduction In diagnostic angiographic procedures, the knowledge of arterial variations in the femoral artery (FA), deep femoral artery (DFA) and lateral and medial circumflex femoral arteries (LCFA, MCFA) has a great impact. Material and methods The frequency of branching patterns of these arteries was investigated in 111 thighs of body donors. Gender and side differences were analyzed statistically. Results The median distance of separation of the DFA from the FA in relation to the inguinal ligament (IL) was 3.29 cm. High origins (1−2 cm below IL) and middle origins (3−5 cm below IL) of the DFA were found in an equal distribution of 39.3% and 41.1%, respectively. Low origins (6−10 cm below IL) were rare (19.6%) but showed a tendential significance toward expression in males (p = 0.096). The origin of the LCFA from the FA (19.8%) or DFA (70.2%) are in line with the findings of other groups. The origin of the MCFA from FA (14.4%) or DFA (74.7%) showed that circumflex femoral arteries arose mostly from DFA. A trifurcation of the FA into the DFA, LCFA and MCFA was only observed in 9.9% and, therefore, less frequently than reported by others. Branches of the femoral nerve (FN) passed mostly anterior (46.4%) or anterior and posterior (47.8%) to the LCFA. The rare constellation of branches of FN passing only posterior to the LCFA (5.8%) showed a tendential significance to left side expression (p = 0.084). Conclusions Taken together, this is the first classification of the median distance of separation of the DFA from the FA in relation to the IL in three defined groups. The knowledge of DFA branching pattern is essential for recent therapy options of cardiac diseases using a femoral artery access: transcatheter aortic valve replacement, catheter-based miniaturized ventricular assist device and veno-arterial extracorporal membrane oxygenation. The variant topography of the branches of FN in relation to LCFA should be kept in mind when harvesting an anterolateral thigh flap.

Laryngeal cartilages undergo a slow ossification process during aging, making them an excellent model for studying cartilage mineralization and ossification processes. Pig laryngeal cartilages are similar to their human counterparts in shape and size, also undergo mineralization, facilitating the study of cartilage mineralization. We investigated the processes of cartilage mineralization and ossification and compared these with the known processes in growth plates. Thyroid cartilages from glutaraldehyde-perfused male minipigs and from domestic pigs were used for X-ray, light microscopic, and transmission electron microscopic analyses. We applied different fixation and postfixation solutions to preserve cell shape, proteoglycans, and membranes. In contrast to the ossifying human thyroid cartilage, predominantly cartilage mineralization was observed in minipig and domestic pig thyroid cartilages. The same subset of chondrocytes responsible for growth plate mineralization is also present in thyroid cartilage mineralization. Besides mineralization mediated by matrix vesicles, a second pattern of cartilage mineralization was observed in thyroid cartilage only. Here, the formation and growth of crystals were closely related to collagen fibrils, which served as guide rails for the expansion of mineralization. It is hypothesized that the second pattern of cartilage mineralization may be similar to a maturation of mineralized cartilage after initial matrix vesicles–mediated cartilage mineralization.

Endochondral ossification is a process that also occurs in the skeleton of the larynx. Differences in the ossification mechanism in comparison to growth plates are not understood until now. To get deeper insights into this process, human thyroid cartilage was investigated by the use of X-rays and a series of light-microscopic stainings. A statistical analysis of mineralization was done by scanning areas of mineralized cartilage and of ossification. We detected a special mode of endochondral ossification which differs from the processes in growth plates. Thyroid cartilage ossifies very slowly and in a gender-specific manner. Compared with age-matched women, bone formation in thyroid cartilage of men is significantly higher in the age group 41-60 years. Endochondral ossification is prepared by internal changes of extracellular matrix leading to areas of asbestoid fibers with ingrowing cartilage canals. In contrast to growth plates, bone is deposited on large areas of mineralized cartilage, which appear at the rims of cartilage canals. Furthermore, primary parallel fibered bone was observed which was deposited on woven bone. The predominant bone type is cancellous bone with trabeculae, whereas compact bone with Haversian systems was seldom found. Trabeculae contain a great number of reversal and arresting lines meaning that the former were often reconstructed and that bone formation was arrested and resumed again with advancing age. It is hypothesized that throughout life trabeculae of ossified thyroid cartilage undergo adaptation to different loads due to the use of voice.

Compression of the ulnar nerve at Guyon's canal can be caused not only by tumor-like structures, a fibrotic arch, a ganglion, lipoma, aneurysm or thrombosis but also by anomalous hypothenar muscles which are reviewed here. For the search of relevant papers, PubMed and crucial anatomical textbooks were consulted. The abductor digiti minimi is the most variable hypothenar muscle. It can possess one to three muscle bellies. Additional heads can arise from the flexor retinaculum, the palmaris longus tendon, the pronator quadratus tendon or the deep fascia of the palmar side of the forearm. Our own case of an aberrant abductor digiti minimi appearing like connective tissue and originating in the antebrachial fascia is included here. Hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed that macroscopically non-muscle-like tissue contained skeletal muscle tissue. The muscle itself resembled other described cases. In addition, at the flexor digiti minimi accessory heads with origin from the flexor retinaculum, the antebrachial fascia or the long flexor muscles of the forearm can be detected. By contrast, the opponens digiti minimi mostly lacks variations and is sometimes missing. In our opinion, this is due to its hidden location. However, in few cases an additional head can arise from the lower arm aponeurosis. Furthermore, additional (fourth) hypothenar muscles might be expressed. These muscles are characterized by origins in the forearm and insertions on the head of the 5th metacarpal bone or on the 5th proximal phalanx. It must be noted that accessory hypothenar muscles might look like connective tissue at first glance. Often their origin extends to the antebrachial fascia. This can be explained by the phylogenetic fact that all intrinsic muscles of the hand are derived from muscle masses that originated in the forearm. In the opinion of several authors, ulnar nerve compression mostly is evoked by hyper trophied variant hypothenar muscles due to overuse as for example in carpenters. In some rare cases, an aberrant hypothenar muscle can also evoke median nerve compression.

Introduction Variations in the brachial plexus are the rule rather than the exception. This fact is of special interest for the anesthetist when planning axillary block of brachial plexus. Material and methods 167 cadaver arms were evaluated for variations in brachial plexus, with focus on the cords of the plexus, the loop of the median nerve, and the course of the median, musculocutaneous, ulnar, axillary and radial nerves. In addition, concomitant arterial variations were recorded. Results In 167 arms, variations were detected in 60 cases (36%). With 46 arms (28%) most variations concern the median nerve, followed by 13 cases (8%) which involved the musculocutaneous nerve. Ulnar, axillary and radial nerve variations were rare, amounting to 1.2% for each nerve. In median nerve conditions with a shifted loop of median nerve (12%), a hidden position of the loop or a hidden course of the beginning median nerve (8%) and a doubled loop of median nerve (17%) were observed. In musculocutaneous nerve conditions with a non-perforated coracobrachialis (1.8%), a doubled origin of the nerve (1.2%) and a giving back of branches to the median nerve (1.8%) were noted. Variations in ulnar, axillary and radial nerves concerned lower than normal diameters. Conclusions It must be stressed that cases which showed a hidden position or a doubled expression of the loop of the median nerve, a hidden course of its beginning and variable interconnections between musculocutaneous and median nerves are of special interest for anesthetists and surgeons. Hence, it is important to note that variations of arm arteries can be associated with brachial plexus variations. For example, a common trunk of axillary artery followed by a hidden loop and course of the median nerve may result in incomplete axillary block of brachial plexus.

Clinical observations have suggested a relationship between osteoarthritis and a changed sex-hormone metabolism, especially in menopausal women. This study analyzes the effect of 17β-estradiol on expression of matrix metalloproteinases-1, -3, -13 (MMP-1, -3, -13) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases-1, -2 (TIMP-1, -2) in articular chondrocytes. An imbalance of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) specialized on degradation of articular cartilage matrix over the respective inhibitors of these enzymes (TIMPs) that leads to matrix destruction was postulated in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Primary human articular chondrocytes from patients of both genders were cultured in alginate beads at 5% O(2) to which 10(-11)M-10(-5)M 17β-estradiol had been added and analyzed by means of immunohistochemistry, immunocytochemistry and real-time RT-PCR. Since articular chondrocytes in vivo are adapted to a low oxygen tension, culture was performed at 5% O(2). Immunohistochemical staining in articular cartilage tissue from patients and immunocytochemical staining in articular chondrocytes cultured in alginate beads was positive for type II collagen, estrogen receptor α, MMP-1, and -13. It was negative for type I collagen, MMP-3, TIMP-1 and -2. Using real-time RT-PCR, it was demonstrated that physiological and supraphysiological doses of 17β-estradiol suppress mRNA levels of MMP-3 and -13 significantly in articular chondrocytes of female patients. A significant suppressing effect was also seen in MMP-1 mRNA after a high dose of 10(-5)M 17β-estradiol. Furthermore, high doses of this hormone led to tendentially lower TIMP-1 levels whereas the TIMP-2 mRNA level was not influenced. In male patients, only incubations with high doses (10(-5)M) of 17β-estradiol were followed by a tendency to suppressed MMP-1 and TIMP-1 levels while TIMP-2 mRNA level was decreased significantly. There was no effect on MMP-13 expression of cells from male patients. Taken together, application of 17β-estradiol in physiological doses will improve the imbalance between the amounts of MMPs and TIMPs in articular chondrocytes from female patients. Downregulation of TIMP-2 by 17β-estradiol in male patients would not be articular cartilage protective.

Summary Atypical or superficial courses of arteries of the arm may cause accidents in therapeutic and surgical procedures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed in a female patient and her brother. In addition, 109 cadaver arms were evaluated for superficial arm arteries and relevant vessels were measured with a calliper. In the patient and her brother the distal radial artery was absent in the normal position. Magnetic resonance imaging showed an artery surrounding the distal radius that nourished the dorsal and palmar hand. In addition, a strongly developed median artery was expressed in the patient’s brother. It is noteworthy that the female patient suffered from occasional hand pain while her brother did not, which is likely due to the additional expression of a median artery. A high origin of radial artery is found 3.67% of the examined cadavers and can be followed by additional vessels nourishing the biceps brachii or by connections to the brachial artery in the cubital fossa. Superficial ulnar arteries were detected in 1.83% of the cadavers, in both instances accompanied by an absent palmaris longus. Additionally, in one case the fork of the median nerve has moved distally and took its lateral fork from musculocutaneous nerve. In conclusion, family members can bear identical arterial variations as has been observed in the patient’s brother. High origin of radial artery and superficial ulnar artery can be accompanied by additional variations concerning vessels, muscles or nerves which have to be considered in the context of invasive and surgical procedures.

Objective Trefoil factor 3 (TFF3, also known as intestinal trefoil factor) is a member of a family of protease-resistant peptides containing a highly conserved motif with 6 cysteine residues. Recent studies have shown that TFF3 is expressed in injured cornea, where it plays a role in corneal wound healing, but not in healthy cornea. Since cartilage and cornea have similar matrix properties, we undertook the present study to investigate whether TFF3 could induce anabolic functions in diseased articular cartilage. Methods We used reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry to measure the expression of TFF3 in healthy articular cartilage, osteoarthritis (OA)–affected articular cartilage, and septic arthritis–affected articular cartilage and to assess the effects of cytokines, bacterial products, and bacterial supernatants on TFF3 production. The effects of TFF3 on matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) production were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and effects on chondrocyte apoptosis were studied by caspase assay and annexin V assay. Results Trefoil factors were not expressed in healthy human articular cartilage, but expression of TFF3 was highly up-regulated in the cartilage of patients with OA. These findings were confirmed in animal models of OA and septic arthritis, as well as in tumor necrosis factor α– and interleukin-1β–treated primary human articular chondrocytes, revealing induction of Tff3/TFF3 under inflammatory conditions. Application of the recombinant TFF3 protein to cultured chondrocytes resulted in increased production of cartilage-degrading MMPs and increased chondrocyte apoptosis. Conclusion In this study using articular cartilage as a model, we demonstrated that TFF3 supports catabolic functions in diseased articular cartilage. These findings widen our knowledge of the functional spectrum of TFF peptides and demonstrate that TFF3 is a multifunctional trefoil factor with the ability to link inflammation with tissue remodeling processes in articular cartilage. Moreover, our data suggest that TFF3 is a factor in the pathogenesis of OA and septic arthritis.

Human laryngeal cartilages, especially thyroid cartilage, exhibit gender-specific ageing. In contrast to male thyroid cartilages, the ventral half of the female thyroid cartilage plate remains unmineralized until advanced age. In cartilage specimens from laryngectomies and autopsies, apoptosis was studied immunohistochemically and the oxidative mitochondrial enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydride tetrazolium reductase (NADH-TR) was localized histochemically. In addition, very fresh specimens from laryngectomies were fixed under addition of ruthenium hexamine trichloride or tannin to fixation solution to study cell organelles of chondrocytes by electron microscopic methods. In general, apoptotic chondrocytes decreased in thyroid cartilages of both genders, especially after the second decade. In the age group 41-60 years, thyroid cartilage from male specimens revealed a significantly higher percentage of apoptotic cells than did thyroid cartilage from women (P = 0.004), whereas in the age groups 0-20 years and 61-79 years no statistically significant gender difference was determined. In general, thyroid cartilage from women contained more living chondrocytes into advanced age than men. Chondrocytes adjacent to mineralized cartilage were partly positive for apoptosis and NADH-TR and partly negative. Apoptotic chondrocytes often were localized in areas of asbestoid fibres where vascularization and mineralization took place first. Electron microscopy revealed remnants of chondrocytes in asbestoid fibres. Taken together, it can be assumed that some chondrocytes in thyroid cartilage die by apoptosis and that these chondrocytes are characterized by absent reactivity for the mitochondrial enzyme NADH-TR. A possible influence of sexual hormones on apoptotic death of thyroid cartilage cells requires further elucidation.

A large patent median artery can be involved in several clinical disorders like carpal tunnel syndrome, anterior interosseous nerve syndrome and pronator syndrome.The frequency and variability in the expression of the median artery and the expression of the other forearm arteries were recorded during two dissection courses. The topography of the arteries with their ramifications was documented on diagrams and photographs. The outer diameters of forearm arteries were measured.A large median artery was found in 4 of 54 arms (7.4%). The median arteries took their origin from the ulnar artery or the common interosseous artery. In one case, the median artery pierced the median nerve in its course under the pronator teres. The outer diameters of the median arteries varied between 1.5 and 2.0 mm proximally and 1.5 and 2.0 mm distally. The diameters of the radial arteries varied between 3.0 and 5.5 mm proximally and 3.0 and 4.0 mm distally and were not reduced in any of the four cases with a large median artery.Surgeons should be aware of other variations in the forearm when a persistent median artery is identified, for example high median nerve bifurcations. Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that additional structures leading to nerve compression may be present in the carpal tunnel.

Ovariectomy (OVX) in animal models is an accepted method to simulate postmenopausal osteoprosis. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been recently shown to play an important role during endochondral bone formation, hypertrophic cartilage remodeling, ossification, and angiogenesis. We hypothesized that reduced VEGF expression in bone contributes to OVX-induced bone loss and tested it in a miniature pig model and in vitro using human osteoblasts. Seventeen primiparous sows (Göttingen miniature pigs) were allocated to two experimental groups when they were 30 months old: a control group (n = 9) and an OVX group (n = 8). After 15 months, VEGF levels in lumbar vertebrae were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and verified by Western blot analysis. VEGF and its receptor (VEGFR) were localized by immunohistochemistry. Expression of VEGF mRNA was analyzed by real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Differently sulfated glycosaminoglycans were localized in subchondral bone histochemically. Osteoblasts were immunopositive for VEGF. VEGF concentration in the vertebra was 27% lower in OVX miniature pigs. VEGFR-2 could be immunostained on osteoblasts. VEGF mRNA and protein were detectable in the lumbar vertebrae of all animals. In subchondral trabecular bone of OVX animals, significantly more islands of mineralized cartilage containing chondroitin 4- and 6-sulfate or keratan sulfate occurred compared to the control group. The occurrence of remnants of mineralized cartilage in subchondral bone of the OVX group may be caused by a delayed bone turnover due to low VEGF levels. In vitro experiments revealed an increase of VEGF in the supernatant of osteoblasts after incubation with estradiol. In conclusion, estrogen seems to be a key factor for regulation of VEGF expression in bone. Loss of VEGF due to menopause may be a reason for reduction of bone density.

While dissecting the body of a 75-year-old female individual we observed "abnormal" patterns of the A. axillaris and the crural arteries which resembled the mammalian plesiomorphic constellation. In the right arm a large common trunk of the A. axillaris gave origin to the A. profunda brachii, the A. circumflexa humeri posterior, the A. circumflexa scapulae and the A. thoracodorsalis. In many other mammals including non-human primates, the Aa. circumflexae humeri and the A. circumflexa scapulae are connected via a third or fourth artery to a common trunk. Since the large common trunk mostly corresponded to the supply area of the A. axillaris, we consider it to be homologous to the distal part of the A. axillaris. In the left arm, except the A. circumflexa humeri posterior and the A. subscapularis which take off together, the other axillary branches showed the "normal" human pattern. In the right leg, the crural arteries exhibited the mammalian plesiomorphic constellation with an A. tibialis anterior ending in the crural extensor muscles, a rudimentary A. tibialis posterior, and a strongly developed A. peronea. In the left leg, the A. tibialis anterior supplied the Dorsum pedis and therefore represented the pattern normally seen in humans. However, in the left leg there also was a rudimentary A. tibialis posterior along with a prominent A. peronea.

While dissecting the body of a 75-year-old male we observed variations in the Mm. flexor digitorum brevis and longus of both feet. In the left foot, the 4th tendon of the M. flexor digitorum brevis was atrophied and the respective tendon of the M. flexor digitorum longus to the little toe was absent. In the right foot, the 4th tendons of both the Mm. flexor digitorum brevis and longus to the little toe were absent. The lacking deep flexor tendon to the little toe in the left foot was replaced by an isolated flexor muscle originating from the medial and lateral processes of the calcaneal tuberosity, which additionally had connections to the tendinous plate of the M. flexor digitorum longus and the M. quadratus plantae. The absent superficial and deep flexor tendons to the little toe in the right foot were replaced by an isolated flexor muscle arising from the M. quadratus plantae distal from the medial process of the calcaneal tuberosity. The tendon of both isolated flexor muscles inserted in the distal phalanx of the little toe. The left isolated flexor muscle for the little toe had connections to the M. flexor digitorum longus and the M. quadratus plantae. From these results it seems likely that the M. quadratus plantae could be regarded as additional flexor head (caput breve or plantare) of the M. flexor digitorum longus as is described in classic textbooks. In the individual's lifetime the described variation perhaps led to the possibility of an isolated flexion of the little toe.

Clinical observations have suggested that estrogens are involved in the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoarthritis (OA). However, positive and negative associations between the incidence of OA and serum estrogen concentrations have been reported. In contrast to this, osteoporosis is regarded as a disease with a strong estrogen-dependent component. Moreover, there is an interaction between estrogen and calcium deficiency: calcium supplementation potentiates the effect of estrogen therapy. The present study was designed to investigate how estrogen deficiency affects the articular cartilage depending on calcium supply. The distribution of different types of glycosaminoglycans and collagens can be used as an indicator for extracellular matrix changes induced by estrogen deficiency. Different levels of dietary calcium were therefore fed to intact and ovariectomized Göttingen miniature pigs for one year before articular cartilage was harvested. The histochemical staining for heavy sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the extracellular matrix of ovariectomized miniature pigs, especially of those fed with a low calcium diet, was stronger in comparison to intact animals. In intact animals type II-collagen was immunodetected in all zones of unmineralized and mineralized articular cartilage, while immunostaining for this protein was negative to weak in the deep radiated fiber zone of ovariectomized minipigs. These results suggest that the synthesis of heavy sulfated glycosaminoglycans and immunohistochemically detectable type II-collagen is possibly influenced by estrogen deficiency. In conclusion, under estrogen deficiency, the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage underwent similar changes to those observed in physiologically aging cartilage where keratan sulfate is increased as a heavy sulfated glycosaminoglycan.

Thyroid cartilages of Munich minipigs and domestic pigs were investigated by polychrome sequential labeling, radiography, intravascular injections, histologic examination and scanning electron microscopy in order to gain further insight into the process of vascularization and cartilage mineralization. The relationship between vascularization and cartilage mineralization has only been studied in chondroepiphyses of long bones. Vessels branch off the perichondrial vascular network and enter parts of the thyroid cartilage with a large transverse diameter. Cartilage canals, which are perichondral invaginations, contain an arteriole, a venule, a capillary network and connective tissue. The capillaries form a glomerulus-like structure deep in the matrix of the cartilage. Neighbouring cartilage canals do not display any anastomoses. Cartilage mineralization occurs in large areas of the thyroid cartilage. It is only found in the interterritorial extracellular matrix. Mineralization of the cartilage is evident in areas supplied with cartilage canals as well as in non-supplied areas. Mineralized interterritorial matrix is composed of circular structures of different sizes fusing to form plaques. In scanning electron microscopy circular structures appear as globules. It is possible to visualize the dynamic process of cartilage mineralization with polychrome sequential labeling; it proceeds up to 4 microm per week. Distribution of cartilage canals reveals their nutritional role for the cartilage. According to investigations in chondroepiphyses, cartilage mineralization starts adjacent to the glomerular end of cartilage canals. In contrast, no correlation between cartilage vascularization and the beginning of cartilage mineralization of the thyroid cartilage of Munich minipigs and of domestic pigs has been found.

Endochondral ossification is a process that also occurs in the skeleton of the larynx. Differences in the ossification mechanism in comparison to growth plates are not understood until now. To get deeper insights into this process, human thyroid cartilage was investigated by the use of X-rays and a series of light-microscopic stainings. A statistical analysis of mineralization was done by scanning areas of mineralized cartilage and of ossification. We detected a special mode of endochondral ossification which differs from the processes in growth plates. Thyroid cartilage ossifies very slowly and in a gender-specific manner. Compared with age-matched women, bone formation in thyroid cartilage of men is significantly higher in the age group 41-60 years. Endochondral ossification is prepared by internal changes of extracellular matrix leading to areas of asbestoid fibers with ingrowing cartilage canals. In contrast to growth plates, bone is deposited on large areas of mineralized cartilage, which appear at the rims of cartilage canals. Furthermore, primary parallel fibered bone was observed which was deposited on woven bone. The predominant bone type is cancellous bone with trabeculae, whereas compact bone with Haversian systems was seldom found. Trabeculae contain a great number of reversal and arresting lines meaning that the former were often reconstructed and that bone formation was arrested and resumed again with advancing age. It is hypothesized that throughout life trabeculae of ossified thyroid cartilage undergo adaptation to different loads due to the use of voice.

The localization of type X collagen and alkaline phosphatase activity was examined in order to gain a better understanding of tissue remodelling during development of human first rib cartilage. First rib cartilages from children and adolescents showed no staining for type X collagen and alkaline phosphatase activity. After onset of mineralization in the late second decade, a peripheral ossification process preceded by mineralized fibrocartilage could be distinguished from a more central one preceded by mineralized hyaline cartilage. No immunostaining for type X collagen was found in either type of cartilage. However, strong staining for alkaline phosphatase activity was detected around chondrocyte-like cells within fibrocartilage adjacent to the peripheral mineralization front, while a weaker staining pattern was observed around chondrocytes of hyaline cartilage near the central mineralization front. In addition, the territorial matrix of some chondrocytes within the hyaline cartilage revealed staining for type I collagen, suggesting that these cells undergo a dedifferentiation process, which leads to a switch from type II to type I collagen synthesis. The study provides evidence that mineralization of the hyaline cartilage areas in human first rib cartilage occurs in the absence of type X collagen synthesis but in the presence of alkaline phosphatase. Thus, mineralization of first rib cartilage seems to follow a different pattern from endochondral ossification in epiphyseal discs.

The localization of fibrillar type I and II collagen was investigated by immunofluorescence staining with specific antibodies in order to obtain a better understanding of tissue remodelling during the development of first rib cartilage. In childhood and early adolescence type I collagen was found to be restricted to the perichondrium of first rib cartilage, while type II collagen was localized in the matrix of hyaline cartilage. However, in advanced age type I collagen was also found in the territorial matrix of intermediate and central chondrocytes of first rib cartilage. The matrix of subperichondrial chondrocytes was negative for type I collagen. This suggests that some chondrocytes in first rib cartilage undergo a modulation to type I collagen-producing cells. The first bone formation was observed in rib cartilages of 20- to 25-year-old adults. Interestingly, the ossification began peripherally, adjacent to the innermost layer of the perichondrium where areas of fibrocartilage had developed. The newly formed bone matrix showed strong immunostaining for type I collagen. Fibrocartilage bordering peripherally on bone matrix revealed only a faint staining for type I collagen, but strong immunoreactivity to type II collagen. The interterritorial matrix of the central chondrocytes failed to react with the type II collagen antibody, in both men and women, from the end of the second decade. These observations indicate that major matrix changes occur at the same time in male and female first rib cartilages. Thus, our findings indicate that ossification in human first rib cartilage does not follow the same pattern as that observed in endochondral ossification of epiphyseal discs or sternal cartilage.

Summary Sex hormones and insulin have been implicated in articular cartilage metabolism. To supplement previous findings on the regulation of matrix synthesis with 17β-estradiol and insulin and to find a possible model to study cartilage metabolism in vitro, we evaluated the expression of estrogen receptors α and β (ERα, ERβ), androgen receptor (AR) and insulin receptor (IR), in immortalized C-28/I2 and T/C-28a2 chondrocytes and in human primary articular cartilage cells. Chondrocytes were treated with increasing concentrations of 17β-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone or insulin and analyzed by means of RT-PCR and Western blotting. Both cell lines as well as human articular chondrocytes expressed ER α and β, AR and IR at mRNA and protein levels. In immortalized C-28/I2 chondrocytes, we showed that increasing concentrations of 17β-estradiol diminished the 95 kDa band of IR. Since 17β-estradiol suppresses insulin-induced proline incorporation and type II collagen synthesis, as we have previously demonstrated, our findings give the first clue that 17β-estradiol may have negative effects on cartilage anabolism triggered by insulin during hormonal imbalance. Compared to chondrocytes cultured without hormones, immunostaining for ERα/β, AR and IR was decreased in both cell lines after incubation of cells with the receptor-specific hormones. It can be assumed that C-28/I2 and T/C-28a2 chondrocytes interact with the respective hormones. Our findings provide a reproducible model for investigating sex hormone and insulin receptors, which are present in low concentrations in articular chondrocytes, in the tissue-specific context of cartilage metabolism.

Sex hormones contribute to the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA) in both sexes. OA is normally not seen in pre-menopausal women, whereas men may develop the disease as early as the 30th year of life. OA also shows increased incidence in association with diseases such as diabetes mellitus. Recent years have seen characterization of essential components of a functional endocrinal network in the articular cartilage comprising not only sex hormones but apparently insulin, growth factors and various peptides as well. In this review, we summarize the latest information regarding the influence of sex hormones, insulin, growth factors and some peptides on healthy cartilage and their involvement in osteoarthritis. Both animal and human research data were considered. The results are presented in an information matrix that identifies what is known, with supporting references, and identifies areas for further investigation.

Clinical observations have suggested a relationship between osteoarthritis and a changed estrogen metabolism in menopausal women. Phytoestrogens have been shown to ameliorate various menopausal symptoms. Proteoglycans (PG) consisting of low and high sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAG) are the main components of articular cartilage matrix, and their synthesis is increased by insulin in growth plate cartilage. We have investigated whether GAG synthesis and sodium [35S]sulfate incorporation in female bovine articular chondrocytes are affected by daidzein, genistein, and/or insulin. For comparative purposes, estradiol incubations were performed. Articular chondrocytes were cultured in monolayers at 5% O2 and 5% CO2 in medium containing serum for 7 days followed by the addition of 10(-11) M-10(-4) M daidzein, genistein, 17beta-estradiol, or 5 microg/ml insulin in a serum-free culture phase of 2 days. Photometrically analyzed GAG synthesis was significantly suppressed by high doses (10(-5) M-10(-4) M) of daidzein, genistein, and 17beta-estradiol. Although insulin raised the sodium [35S]sulfate uptake significantly, different concentrations of daidzein, genistein, or 17beta-estradiol showed no significant effects. However, the stimulating effect of insulin on sulfate incorporation was enhanced significantly after preincubation of cells with 10(-11) M-10(-5) M daidzein or 10(-9) M-10(-5) M genistein but not by 17beta-estradiol. In view of the risks of long-term estrogen replacement therapy, further experiments should clarify the potential benefit of phytoestrogens and insulin in articular cartilage metabolism.

The degree of mineralization in human thyroid cartilage is gender specific. Until now, laryngeal tissue was tested for sexual hormone receptors by the use of radiolabelled hormones only without exact localization of the receptors. In this study immediately frozen cartilage specimens from seven male and one female patient who underwent laryngectomy were used for immunolocalization of sexual hormone receptors. Additionally, serum sexual hormone levels were measured by means of radioimmunoassay. Alkaline phosphatase was localized enzymohistochemically in another cohort of six male and four female cartilage specimens from laryngectomies and autopsies. Chondrocytes in thyroid cartilage from both sexes reacted with antibodies to the androgen receptor. The low serum testosterone levels, which varied between 1.5 and 3.9 ng/ml, did not correlate with insufficient mineralization of thyroid cartilage in men (r=0.363, P=0.432). Chondrocytes did not react with antibodies to the estrogen receptor alpha and the progesterone receptor in both sexes. Expression of alkaline phosphatase started about the middle of the second decade. Some chondrocytes near the mineralization front were positive for androgen receptor and alkaline phosphatase, other chondrocytes were negative for both. Our results suggest the involvement of androgen receptor positive chondrocytes in thyroid cartilage mineralization, probably by a testosterone-linked stimulation of alkaline phosphatase.

Clinical observations have suggested a relationship between osteoarthritis and a changed estrogen metabolism in menopausal women. Type II collagen is one main structural protein of articular cartilage matrix and its synthesis is increased by insulin in growth plate cartilage. Therefore, it was investigated if [(3)H]-proline incorporation and type II collagen synthesis (immunocytochemistry, ELISA) in female bovine articular chondrocytes are affected by 17beta-estradiol and/or insulin. Articular chondrocytes were cultured in monolayers at 5% O(2) in medium containing serum for 5-9 days, followed by application of 10(-13) to 10(-9) M estradiol or 5 microg/ml insulin during a serum-free culture phase of 2-3 days. Immunostaining for type II collagen was strong in the serum-free culture phase whereas it was negative for type I collagen, indicating that cells did not dedifferentiate to fibroblast-like cells during culture in serum-free medium. Whereas insulin raised the proline incorporation and the type II collagen synthesis significantly, physiological doses of estradiol did not show significant effects. The stimulating effect of insulin on the [(3)H]-proline incorporation or the type II collagen synthesis was significantly suppressed after preincubation of cells with 10(-11) to 10(-9) M estradiol resembling an unfavorable effect for articular cartilage. The suppression was reversed if cells were incubated with 10(-11) to 10(-7) M tamoxifen or ICI 182,780 combined with 10(-11) or 10(-9) M estradiol followed by incubation with 5 microg/ml insulin, indicating an estrogen receptor-mediated process. Because the articular cartilage of diabetic patients is biomechanically less stable, further experiments are needed to clarify the role of estradiol and insulin in the metabolism of articular chondrocytes.

Certain drugs or treatments that are known to affect bone quality or integrity might have side effects on the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage. We investigated the effects of vitamin D and calcium deficiency, estrogen deficiency, and hypercortisolism alone or in combination with bisphosphonates or sodium fluoride in an animal model, viz., the Gottingen miniature pig (n=29). The articular cartilage from knee joints was analyzed for its content of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs, as macromolecules responsible for the elasticity of articular cartilage) by a spectrometric method with dimethylene blue chloride. In cryo- or paraffin sections, alkaline phosphatase (AP, as an enzyme indicating mineralization or reorganization of articular cartilage matrix) was localized by enzyme histochemistry, and positive cells were counted, whereas differently sulfated GAGs were stained histochemically. A significant decrease in GAG content was measured in ovariectomized and long-term glucocorticoid-treated animals compared with untreated animals. In the glucocorticoid/sodium fluoride group, GAGs were significantly diminished, and significantly fewer AP-positive chondrocytes were counted compared with the control. GAG content was slightly higher, and significantly more AP-positive chondrocytes were counted in short-term glucocorticoid-treated animals then in the control group. GAGs, as part of proteoglycans, are responsible for the water-storage capacity that gives articular cartilage its unique property of elasticity. Thus, ovariectomy and long-term glucocorticoid therapy, especially when combined with sodium fluoride, have detrimental effects on this tissue.

Summary Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as present to Rostock's anatomical collection in 1882. The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear; according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy. To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B.C.E. All skulls were found to be male; their age ranged from 20 to 60 years, with an average age of about thirty. A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower. Maximum skull length, minimum frontal breadth, ear bregma height, bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt-Celtics from North Bavaria. In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden-Wurttemberg but rather with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria. Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latene-Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria. Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria, it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is aggravated in menopausal women possibly because of changed serum estrogen levels. Estradiol has been postulated to affect oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) in articular chondrocytes. We generated ROS in cultured bovine articular chondrocytes by incubating them with combined Fe2SO4, vitamin C, and hydrogen peroxide. The release of thiobarbituric-acid-reactive substances (TBARS, lipid peroxidation) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH, membrane damage) was measured photometrically. Various estradiol doses and vitamin E, serving as control with an established anti-oxidative capacity, were applied either upon each exchange of medium and during radical production (strategy 1) or only during radical production (strategy 2). In chondrocytes incubated according to strategy 1, the production of TBARS and LDH release were significantly suppressed by 10(-10)-10(-4) M estradiol or by vitamin E. Under strategy 2, the production of TBARS was significantly suppressed at estradiol concentrations higher than 10(-6) M, whereas LDH release was inhibited at concentrations of 10(-6)-10(-4) M. Vitamin E showed no significant effects. As repeated application of estradiol and vitamin E produced the best results, estradiol, like vitamin E, was speculated to accumulate in the plasma membrane and to decrease membrane fluidity resulting in protection against lipid peroxidation (non-genomic effect). Thus, in contrast to the neuroprotective effect of 17beta-estradiol in supraphysiological doses reported recently, the anti-oxidative potential of estradiol appears to protect articular chondrocytes from ROS-induced damage when the hormone is given repeatedly in a physiological range. Decreased estradiol levels may therefore contribute to menopausal OA in the long term.

While dissecting the body of an 80-year-old female we observed multiple variations in the right region of Mm. extensores carpi radialis longus and brevis. The M. extensor carpi radialis longus gave origin to an accessory head. The tendon of this accessory head passed through a separate tunnel in the extensor retinaculum and inserted in the middle of the first metacarpal bone. Concerning its function, this accessory head of the M. extensor carpi radialis longus could be regarded as an additional abductor pollicis. The M. extensor carpi radialis brevis had an accessory tendon lying underneath the main tendon of this muscle. The accessory tendon joined with the main tendon just when undercrossing Mm. abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. Afterwards the tendon lay in the second tunnel of the extensor retinaculum and inserted in the base of the third metacarpal. In her lifetime the individual's tabatiere probably must have been conspicuously pronounced at its radial margin.

Introduction: Sex hormones, especially estrogens, have been implicated in articular cartilage metabolism and the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoarthritis. The conversion by aromatase (CYP19A1) of androstenedione into estrone (E1) and of testosterone into 17β-estradiol (E2) plays a key role in the endogenous synthesis of estrogens in tissue. Methods: We analyzed the expression of aromatase (CYP19A1) in immortalized C-28/I2 and T/C-28a2 chondrocytes, as well as in cultured primary human articular chondrocytes and human articular cartilage tissue, by means of RT-PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. By means of quantitative RT-PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we also determined whether the aromatase inhibitor letrozole influences estrogen metabolism of cultured chondrocytes in immortalized C-28/I2 chondrocytes. Results: Aromatase mRNA was detected in both immortalized chondrocyte cell lines, in cultured primary human chondrocytes, and in human articular cartilage tissue. By means of Western blot analysis, aromatase was detected at the protein level in articular cartilage taken from various patients of both sexes and different ages. Cultured primary human articular chondrocytes, C-28/I2 and T/C-28a2, and human articular cartilage tissue reacted with antibodies for aromatase. Incubation of C-28/I2 chondrocytes with 10 �11 Mt o 10 �7 M letrozole as an aromatase inhibitor revealed significantly increased amounts of the mRNAs of the enzyme cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1), which is involved in the catagen estrogen metabolism, and of the estrogen receptors ER-α and ER-β. Concomitantly, synthesis of estrone (E1) was significantly downregulated after incubation with letrozole. Conclusions: We demonstrate that human articular cartilage expresses aromatase at the mRNA and protein levels. Blocking of estrone synthesis by the aromatase inhibitor letrozole is counteracted by an increase in ER-α and ER-β .I n addition, CYP1A1, an enzyme involved in catabolic estrogen metabolism, is upregulated. This suggests that articular chondrocytes use ERs functionally. The role of endogenous synthesized estrogens in articular cartilage health remains to be elucidated.

Clinical observations suggest that estrogens are involved in the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoarthritis, but only little is known about the influence of these hormones on articular cartilage cells. The effect of estradiol is mediated by estrogen receptors alpha and beta. The goal of the present study was to search for estrogen receptor alpha in articular tissue from cows, pigs and humans by immunohistochemistry to form a basis for in vitro studies. In addition, we also tried to detect estrogen receptor alpha in cultivated articular chondrocytes from cows and bulls under certain culture conditions. Estrogen receptor alpha is detected by the use of antibody 13H2 in articular chondrocytes from cows, bulls, pigs and humans. Chondrocytes are physiologically exposed to reduced oxygen tension. In isolated articular chondrocytes from cows and bulls incubated either with 21% O2 or with 5% O2 positive cells were also found. These positive results therefore encourage testing the influence of estradiol on cultivated articular cartilage cells in these species under different culture conditions.

Non-invasive assessment of cartilage properties, specifically water content, could prove helpful in the diagnosis of early degenerative joint diseases. Transverse relaxation times T2 of human articular cartilage (34 cartilage slices of three donors) were measured on a pixel-by-pixel basis in a clinical whole body MR system in vitro. In vivo feasibility to measure quantitative T2 maps was shown for human patellar cartilage. The relaxation times of cartilage with collagen in the radial zone oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field increased from approximately 10 ms near the bone to approximately 60 ms near the articular surface. Cartilage water content of the tibial plateau and femoral condyles could be determined from the correlation with T2 (R2 = 0.71) with an error of approximately 2 wt.%. In vivo, directional variation would need to be considered. If confirmed in vivo, T2 measurements could potentially serve as a non-invasive tool for the evaluation of the status and distribution of water content in articular cartilage.

Mineralization and ossification of human thyroid cartilage first starts after the end of adolescence when the previously cartilaginous human skeleton has become ossified and the epiphyseal discs are in the process of closing. However, the mechanisms involved in mineralization and ossification of human thyroid cartilage are not well understood. Ultrastructural analysis of human thyroid cartilage revealed that mineralization started close to cartilage canals in a matrix containing gigantic collagen fibers (asbestoid fibers). Matrix vesicles were detected in mineralized areas and were often associated with needle-like crystals. For the first time we were able to isolate matrix vesicles from human thyroid cartilage by mild enzymatic digestions and ultracentrifugation. These particles were oval and varied in size; some were heavily calcified. They were enriched in alkaline phosphatase, calcium, and inorganic phosphate, suggesting that the particles contain Ca2+-Pi complexes. Immunoblot analysis of these vesicles revealed the presence of annexins II, V, and VI, membrane-associated, channel-forming proteins, which allow influx of Ca2+ into the vesicles and intralumenal crystal growth. In addition, the vesicles were associated with types II and X collagen, suggesting that this association not only anchors the vesicles to the extracellular matrix, but, as shown previously, also stimulates Ca2+ influx into these particles. In conclusion, matrix vesicles isolated from human thyroid cartilage contain all the components, enabling them to initiate and mediate the mineralization process in human thyroid cartilage.

In this study the collagenous composition of cartilage canals in human thyroid cartilage, which are perichondral invaginations of blood vessels and connective tissue, and the surrounding cartilage matrix were investigated by immunolabelling with specific antibodies against type I, II, pro-III, IV and X collagen. During childhood and early adolescence no cartilage canals were detected in thyroid cartilage, and immunolabelling for type IV collagen was restricted to basal lamina components of blood vessels in the perichondrium. First immunolabelling for type IV collagen, belonging to blood vessels in cartilage canals, in both sexes was detected about the end of the second decade; it was localized in the dorsal part of the thyroid cartilage plate. At this time thyroid cartilage has already reached its final form and size. As revealed by von Kossa staining, vascularization preceded mineralization and ossification. In contrast to the male thyroid cartilage plate, no immunostaining for type IV collagen and no ossification was detected in the ventral half of female thyroid cartilage even in advanced age. The extracellular matrix of cells in cartilage canals showed positive immunostaining for collagen types I and pro-III as well as for collagen type II, indicating that the cells in the canal possess fibroblastic and chondrogenic properties. The extracellular matrix of hypertrophic chondrocytes adjacent to cartilage canals showed strong immunoreactivity for type X collagen. First mineralization was detected close to cartilage canals, suggesting that mineralization in human thyroid cartilage starts in the extracellular matrix adjacent to cartilage canals.