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In mammals, the patella is the biggest sesamoid bone of the skeleton and is of crucial importance in posture and locomotion, ensuring the role of a pulley for leg extensors while protecting and stabilizing the knee joint. Despite its central biomechanical role, the relation between the shape of the patella and functional factors, such as body mass or locomotor habit, in the light of evolutionary legacy are poorly known. Here, we propose a morphofunctional investigation of the shape variation of the patella among modern rhinoceroses and more generally among perissodactyls, this order of ungulates displaying a broad range of body plan, body mass and locomotor habits, to understand how the shape of this sesamoid bone varies between species and relatively to these functional factors. Our investigation, relying on three dimensional geometric morphometrics and comparative analyses, reveals that, within Rhinocerotidae and between the three perissodactyl families, the shape of the patella strongly follows the phylogenetic affinities rather than variations in body mass. The patellar shape is more conservative than initially expected both within and between rhinoceroses, equids and tapirs. The development of a medial angle, engendering a strong mediolateral asymmetry of the patella, appears convergent in rhinoceroses and equids, while tapirs retain a symmetric bone close to the plesiomorphic condition of the order. This asymmetric patella is likely associated with the presence of a “knee locking” mechanism in both equids and rhinos. The emergence of this condition may be related to a shared locomotor habit (transverse gallop) in both groups. Our investigation underlines unexcepted evolutionary constraints on the shape of a sesamoid bone usually considered as mostly driven by functional factors.

Background: ''Chemsex'' is an emerging practice all over the world, sometimes fatal for its users. The victim, a 36-year-old martial arts athlete, was found lifeless lying on his back on the ground in the woods, with a rope tied around the neck, passing over the branch of a tree 2 m from the ground, the other end of the ligature being held in the dead body’s right hand. A third party (a male prostitute) was present at the time of death. Material and methods: A forensic autopsy was performed 48 h after death, including a complete histologic examination of most organs and toxicological analyses. Blood, hair, and organs were analysed for drugs and narcotics (LC-MS/MS and GC-MS), and alcohol was determined by GC-FID. Results and discussion: Autopsy findings showed moderate asphyxia syndrome without clear skin ligature marks, but there were deep cervical contusions. Other contusions were found including deep bruises in the dorsal area and superficial hemorrhagic infiltration of the medial surface of both wrists. Focal bruising of the tongue was found. Organs showed no significant pathology. There was a residual thymus, suggesting chronic drug addiction. Histological examination showed frank signs of hemodynamic shock. Foci of contusions found during autopsy were confirmed, showing no inflammatory reaction. Foci of granular cylinders were present in renal tubules. Heart showed focal non-specific endocardial fibrosis. Toxicological findings were the following ones: (1) peripheral blood: THC at 0.1 ng/mL, THC-COOH at 1 ng/mL, with no 11-OH-THC, indicating last use more than 12 h before death; 3-MMC, NPS-type cathinone at 960 ng/mL, a high, potentially lethal concentration; GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyric acid) at 24 mg/L, a medium concentration, but consistent with last use in the hours before death; ethanol at 0.73 g/L, a relatively low concentration, but which potentiates the toxic effects of the associated molecules. (2) Hair: 3-MMC at 1986 pg/mg, consistent with chronic use in the last few months. (3) Viscera: 3-MMC at 700 ng/mg in the brain, suggesting a cerebral distribution of this molecule. The cardio-femoral ratio of 7.6 was consistent with post mortem release from the heart and/or diffusion from the stomach and/or reservoir organs. Conclusion: We present a case of lethal mechanical asphyxia by atypical hanging, which occurred after recent consumption of 3-MMC and GHB, which contributed to the death in a context of chemsex, which is sometimes associated with sadomasochistic practices such as strangulation. As there was a third-party present at the time of death, according to the police investigation, manner of death was undetermined, as homicide possibly by strangulation was not formally ruled out. This autopsy case illustrates the need to carefully confront police investigations with complete forensic investigations, including exhaustive toxicological analyses.

Paleoneurological studies of mosasaurids are few and limited to old partial reconstructions made from latex casts on Platecarpus and Clidastes. Here, the brain endocasts of three specimens of the early mosasaurid Tethysaurus nopcsai from the Turonian of Morocco are reconstructed for the first time by using micro-computed tomography. Comparisons between Tethysaurus and the later Platecarpus and Clidastes show that distinct endocranial organizations have occurred within the clade through time, including differences in the flexure of the endocast and the size of the parietal eye. The physiological consequences of such variability remain unclear and further investigations are required to better interpret these variations. In addition, the endocast of Tethysaurus was compared to those of extant anguimorphs, iguanians, and snakes, using landmark-based geometric morphometrics. The results revealed that Tethysaurus exhibits a unique combination of endocranial features compared to extant toxicoferans. Contrary to previous statements, we find no strong resemblance in endocast morphology between Tethysaurus and varanids. Rather, the endocast of Tethysaurus shows some morphological similarities with each of the clades of anguimorphs, iguanians, and snakes. In this context, while a notable phylogenetic signal is observed in the variability of squamate endocasts, it is premature to establish any phylogenetic affinities between mosasaurids and extant squamates based solely on endocast morphologies.

The functional signal of bone internal structure has been widely studied. Isolated form‐function relationships have often been assumed from the observation of presumed morphofunctional relationships, but have never been truly tested. Indeed, distinct bone microanatomical feature co‐evolve in response to various constraints that are difficult to detangle. This study tested for the first time the impact of various microanatomical parameters taken one by one, plus some in pairs, on bone strength under compression using biomechanical modelling. We carried out finite element analyses on humerus models, obtained from a white rhinoceros, with different heterogeneous internal structures, and analysed the magnitude and distribution of von Mises stresses. These tests validated earlier hypotheses of form‐function relationships about the greater resistance to compression provided by the thickening of the cortex and the filling of the medullary area by trabecular bone and highlighted the stronger impact of increasing trabecular bone compactness than of avoiding an open medullary cavity. By making it possible to estimate the relative impact of each parameter and of combinations of microanatomical features, they also showed the more limited impact of the trabecular bone compactness in the epiphyses to resist compression, and the fact that microanatomical changes of opposite but of similar amplitude impact can compensate each other, but that the impact of the sum of two negative microanatomical changes far exceeds the sum of the impacts of each of the two changes taken separately. These results contribute to a better understanding of bone adaptation and form‐function relationships so that they later can be used with confidence for palaeobiological inferences on fossil specimens, contributing to a better understanding of skeletal evolution during the evolutionary history of vertebrates. They also highlight the potential of taking internal structure into account in the bone biomechanical analyses. In addition, they can be used in bioinspiration to design resistant structures subjected to compression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Ichthyopterygia is a major clade of reptiles that colonized the ocean after the end-Permian mass extinction, with the oldest fossil records found in early Spathian substage (late Olenekian, late Early Triassic) strata in the western USA. Here, we describe reptilian remains found in situ in the early Spathian Neocolumbites insignis ammonoid zone of South Primorye in the Russian Far East. Specimen NSM PV 23854 comprises fragmentary axial elements exhibiting a combination of morphological characteristics typical of Ichthyopterygia. The cylindrical centra suggest that the specimen represents a basal ichthyopterygian, and its size is comparable to that of Utatsusaurus. Specimen NSM PV 24995 is represented by a single limb bone, which is tentatively identified as an ichthyopterygian humerus. With a body length of approximately 5 m estimated from the humeral length, NSM PV 24995 represents one of the largest specimens of early Spathian marine reptiles known to date. Such size variation among the earliest ichthyopterygians might suggest an explosive diversification in size immediately after the end-Permian mass extinction. Both vertebrae and humerus specimens exhibit an extremely cancellous inner structure, suggesting a high degree of aquatic adaptation in ichthyopterygians, despite their short history of evolution in the ocean.

Reduced mobility associated with captivity induces changes in biomechanical stress on the skeleton of domesticated animals. Due to bone plasticity, bone’s morphology and internal structure can respond to these new biomechanical stresses over individuals’ lifetime. In a context where documenting early process of animal domestication is challenging, this study will test the hypothesis that change in mobility patterns during a wild ungulate’s life will alter the internal structure of its limb bones and provide a proof of concept for the application of this knowledge in Zooarchaeology. Using the calcaneus as a phenotypic marker through qualitative and quantitative 3D microanatomical analyses, we relied on a comparative study across wild boars (Sus scrofa) populations from controlled experimental conditions with different mobility patterns (natural habitat, large pen, and stall) and archaeological specimens collected from middle and late Mesolithic as surrogate for the norm of reaction in European wild boar phenotype before the spread of agriculture and domestic pigs. Results provide evidence for compressive and tensile forces as the main elements affecting the variation in the cortical thickness along the calcaneus. Furthermore, changes in the internal structure of the calcaneus between mobility patterns are observed but their intensity is not directly associated with the degree of mobility restriction and only weakly impacted by the size or weight of the individuals. Despite having greater bone volume, the calcaneus of the Mesolithic wild boars displays a very similar microanatomy compared to the present-day hunted or captive wild boars. These results suggest that calcaneal microanatomy is more affected by population differences than by locomotor variation. For all these reasons, this preliminary study doesn’t support the use of microanatomy of the calcaneus as an indicator of change in locomotor behaviour induced by captivity in the archaeological record.

Increasingly, evidence suggests that exposure to maternal obesity creates an inflammatory environment in utero, exerting long-lasting postnatal signatures on the juvenile innate immune system and microbiome that may predispose offspring to development of fatty liver disease. We found that exposure to a maternal Western-style diet (WD) accelerated fibrogenesis in the liver of offspring and was associated with early recruitment of proinflammatory macrophages at 8-12 weeks and microbial dysbiosis as early as 3 weeks of age. We further demonstrated that bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were polarized toward an inflammatory state at 8 weeks of age and that a potent antioxidant, pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), reversed BMDM metabolic reprogramming from glycolytic toward oxidative metabolism by restoring trichloroacetic acid cycle function at isocitrate dehydrogenase. This resulted in reduced inflammation and inhibited collagen fibril formation in the liver at 20 weeks of age, even when PQQ was withdrawn at 3 weeks of age. Beginning at 3 weeks of age, WD-fed mice developed a decreased abundance of Parabacteroides and Lactobacillus, together with increased Ruminococcus and decreased tight junction gene expression by 20 weeks, whereas microbiota of mice exposed to PQQ retained compositional stability with age, which was associated with improved liver health. Conclusion: Exposure to a maternal WD induces early gut dysbiosis and disrupts intestinal tight junctions, resulting in BMDM polarization and induction of proinflammatory and profibrotic programs in the offspring that persist into adulthood. Disrupted macrophage and microbiota function can be attenuated by short-term maternal treatment with PQQ prior to weaning, suggesting that reshaping the early gut microbiota in combination with reprogramming macrophages during early weaning may alleviate the sustained proinflammatory environment, preventing the rapid progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in offspring of obese mothers. (Hepatology Communications 2018;2:313-328).

The Datini collection in the archives of Prato in Tuscany, through its correspondence and account books, sheds light on the circulation of shipments of copper mined in the kingdom of Hungary, transported to Venice, and shipped to northern Africa via Mallorca, then to sub-Saharan Africa via the Touat, around 1400. The rich content of the correspondence exchanged between various subsidiaries of the Datini company fills an important gap in the documentation on African connections and routes. The purpose of this article is thus to unveil the stakes and modalities of such a trade, by highlighting the routes and the actors. The first part is a precise and detailed presentation of the copper shipments including important data. Reference is made to the quality of the copper and its shapes (rods, ingots, plates, etc.), trade routes, intermediaries, etc. This first part describes the route of copper from the Hungarian kingdom to the Touat, a Saharan crossroads then in full expansion. The second part follows on and offers a synthesis of the state of knowledge on the question of copper in the context of the great trans-Saharan trade and its southern West African outlets (Sahel, forest zone). The main purpose is to show how the data in the Datini collection can shed new light on the geopolitics of copper in the Sahara and the Sahel around 1400 and contribute to enrich a patchy documentation and provide material for the development of new theories and ideas.

From its first small representatives to its later giant species, the Order Proboscidea evolved increasingly large forms. Limb long bones are heavily affected by shifts in body mass, and this is especially true in proboscideans, in which an increase in body mass is associated with a reorientation of the limb into the parasagittal plane, reducing the need for strong musculature. We investigated shape variation in the six long bones elements of the limb of extant and extinct proboscideans with regard to body mass evolution in this lineage. To do so, we used three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics and qualitative comparisons to describe shape variability. Our analysis indicates that the shift from a flexed posture to a columnar one results in reorientations of articular surfaces in the six bones, and a decrease in robustness, thus reducing bending stresses on the bones. We also identify two main morphotypes among graviportal proboscideans: one (MA) corresponding to bones with a thin diaphysis and narrow epiphyses, as in deinotheres and elephantids, and the other (MB) to bones with a large diaphysis and wide epiphyses, seen in gomphotheres and mammutids. Both morphotypes are observed in species of similar mass, indicating that adaptation to high body weight support has been achieved in two different ways among proboscideans, and that once acquired, it remains fixed within the taxon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In mammals, the patella is the biggest sesamoid bone of the skeleton and is of crucial importance in posture and locomotion, ensuring the role of a pulley for leg extensors while protecting and stabilizing the knee joint. Despite its central biomechanical role, the relation between the shape of the patella and functional factors, such as body mass or locomotor habit, in the light of evolutionary legacy are poorly known. Here, we propose a morphofunctional investigation of the shape variation of the patella among modern rhinoceroses and more generally among perissodactyls, this order of ungulates displaying a broad range of body plan, body mass and locomotor habits, to understand how the shape of this sesamoid bone varies between species and relatively to these functional factors. Our investigation, relying on three dimensional geometric morphometrics and comparative analyses, reveals that, within Rhinocerotidae and between the three perissodactyl families, the shape of the patella strongly follows the phylogenetic affinities rather than variations in body mass. The patellar shape is more conservative than initially expected both within and between rhinoceroses, equids and tapirs. The development of a medial angle, engendering a strong mediolateral asymmetry of the patella, appears convergent in rhinoceroses and equids, while tapirs retain a symmetric bone close to the plesiomorphic condition of the order. This asymmetric patella is likely associated with the presence of a "knee locking" mechanism in both equids and rhinos. The emergence of this condition may be related to a shared locomotor habit (transverse gallop) in both groups. Our investigation underlines unexcepted evolutionary constraints on the shape of a sesamoid bone usually considered as mostly driven by functional factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management of a merchant company required well-trained and competent staff. For this reason, merchants placed great importance on the training and recruitment of their employees, favouring family ties and geographical origin. The content of the training as well as the permanent control over the actions of the employees guaranteed the smooth running of the economic activities. Through the case studies of two Tuscan companies specialised in large-scale trade, Datini and Salviati, our article highlights the processes of professionalisation of merchants as they appear in accounting documentation and correspondence

The robbery, in the Tuat, of a cargo full of copper sent from Majorca by Florentine merchants put in light the trade circulations between the Mediterranean and the Sahara at the very beginning of the 15th century. For its rich content, the correspondance kept between agents of different Datini subsidiaries fills an important gap in the documentation on the Tuat and its connections. Indeed, it shows which were the main itineraries and the actors of this trade, illustrating the role of Jewish merchants circulating along the road Majorca-Honein-Tuat, which became the privileged access to reach Saharan and Subssaharan markets. This article aims to reveal the issues and the modalités of such a trade.

Land mammals support and move their body using their musculoskeletal system. Their musculature usually presents varying adaptations with body mass or mode of locomotion. Rhinocerotidae is an interesting clade in this regard, as they are heavy animals potentially reaching three tons but are still capable of adopting a galloping gait. However, their musculature has been poorly studied. Here we report the dissection of both forelimb and hindlimb of one neonate and one adult each for two species of rhinoceroses, the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum). We show that their muscular organisation is similar to that of their relatives, equids and tapirs, and that few evolutionary convergences with other heavy mammals (e.g. elephants and hippopotamuses) are present. Nevertheless, they show clear adaptations to their large body mass, such as more distal insertions for the protractor and adductor muscles of the limbs, giving them longer lever arms. The quantitative architecture of rhino muscles is again reminiscent of that of horses and tapirs, although contrary to horses, the forelimb is much stronger than the hindlimb, which is likely due to its great role in body mass support. Muscles involved mainly in counteracting gravity (e.g. serratus ventralis thoracis, infraspinatus, gastrocnemius, flexores digitorum) are usually highly pennate with short fascicles facilitating strong joint extension. Muscles involved in propulsion (e.g. gluteal muscles, gluteobiceps, quadriceps femoris) seem to represent a compromise between a high maximal isometric force and long fascicles, allowing a reasonably fast and wide working range. Neonates present higher normalized maximal isometric force than the adults for almost every muscle, except sometimes for the extensor and propulsor muscles, which presumably acquire their great force-generating capacity during the growth of the animal. Our study clarifies the way the muscles of animals of cursorial ancestry can adapt to support a greater body mass and calls for further investigations in other clades of large body mass.