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Abstract: China's chemical industry has greatly altered the processes that contribute to reactive nitrogen (Nr) creation and Nr emission. However, the fluxes, fates and environmental consequences of Nr produced by the chemical industry remain poorly understood and unquantified. We report here that Nr creation and Nr emission by the chemical industry increased 47- and 37-fold from 1963 to 2015, respectively. Nr fixation in the chemical industry mainly results from the production of N fertilizer, but Nr fixation by fossil fuel combustion and chemical N products (except N fertilizer) has rapidly increased over the past 15 years. Meanwhile, the manufacture of raw chemical materials and chemical products are the main contributors to waste Nr production. Driving force analysis of Nr creation and Nr emission shows that population growth has the largest positive effect, while urbanization also has varying degrees of impact. Additionally, we propose some policy suggestions to reduce the environmental impact of Nr emissions from the chemical industry based on a brief future perspective of Nr creation and Nr emission. These findings will provide policy makers with an integrated view of Nr metabolism and environmental damage to address the significant challenges associated with reducing emissions in the chemical industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, many coal-to-olefin (CTO) plants have started up in China. It is important for China to answer the following question: between coal-based ethylene and oil-based ethylene, which is the better choice? To provide a reference for policy makers and investors, this paper analyses the economic performance and the impact of future environment policy of both the CTO project and the oil-based ethylene project by a cost-benefit analysis. Quantitative analysis shows that the CTO project has a slight advantage over the oil-based ethylene project in a basic scenario when the crude oil price is above $70/bbl. However, international oil prices have a greater impact on the CTO project than the oil-based ethylene project. Thus, the CTO project has less anti-risk ability to the international oil market fluctuation than the oil-based ethylene project. What's more important is the environmental policy impact. After taking carbon trading costs and wastewater surcharge into account, the CTO project no longer has any advantage over the oil-based ethylene project. It can be seen in the foreseeable future that the CTO project will soon lose competitiveness. This indicates that the CTO project may not be consistent with sustainable development. These results suggest that from an environment perspective, policy makers and investors should be prudent about developing the CTO project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China produces and consumes a large amount of batteries annually, which leads to many waste batteries needing to be recycled. The collection and recycling system of primary, alkaline secondary, and lithium-ion secondary batteries in China is particularly poor, and waste battery recycling enterprises generally sustain economic losses if they solely use waste batteries as raw materials. Increasing the profits of waste battery recycling systems is a key problem that needs to be considered. This article quantitatively analyzes waste battery generation in China by using annual sales data and probable lifetime distribution of various batteries. The results show that the rapid growth of battery usage has led to an increased generation of waste batteries and the percentage of different types of waste batteries is changing over time. In 2013, the total quantity of all waste batteries in the medium lifetime scenario reached 570 kilotons, of which primary, alkaline secondary, and lithium-ion secondary waste batteries accounted for approximately 36%, 28%, and 35%, respectively. Based on a real-world case study of a typical domestic waste battery recycling enterprise in China, material flow analysis and cost-benefit analysis were conducted to study the development of the recycling process of comingled waste batteries. Through scenario analysis, we conclude that increasing the use of waste batteries as raw materials and the recycling of other materials that are less valuable reduces the profits of the waste battery recycling enterprise. Higher profits can be achieved by adding the production of high value-added downstream products and government support. At the same time, the essential role of the government in developing a waste battery recycling system was identified. Finally, relevant suggestions are made for improvements in both the government and enterprise sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Circular economy plays an essential and useful role in China in considering economic and ecological sustainability. Individual firms, as the primary implements of a circular economy, are facing many obstacles at present in aspects of resource and ecological efficiency. Therefore, this study presents a set of tools to help decision makers better solve these problems and to guide resource-based chemical industries in sustainable development. First, this study describes resource efficiency based on the SFA of a selected P-chemistry firm and identifies the key potential opportunities for improvement using analysis tools and assessment tools. Furthermore, by applying eco-design and decision tools, a firm-level, P-chemical, circular economic system is designed and constructed. A phosphorus chemical optimization model is established, and relevant successive scenarios are generated. Finally, the corresponding feasible solutions and policy recommendations are proposed to improve economic benefit, resource efficiency, waste recycling rate, and eco-efficiency. After industry design, planning, and technological progress, the total economic benefit increases dramatically, and the recycling efficiencies of accompanying resources (F, Si, I, and S) improve by different degrees. The results demonstrate that the economic benefit of phosphorus products increases by 28.5%, and P utilization efficiency correspondingly increases from 81.1% to 94.7%. The comprehensive utilization efficiency of phosphor gypsum increases to 100%, and the eco-efficiency could be improved significantly by eliminating the phosphor gypsum stack. This study demonstrates that technological progress in mineral processing and the production of associated products is the endogenic motivation to increase economic benefit and improve resource efficiency. The method proposed in this paper can be applied, duplicated, and spread not only within the P-chemical industry but also in other resource-based chemical industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern human activities greatly disturb substance flows in nature and senselessly discard massive amounts of precious resources to natural waste reservoirs; phosphorus (P) is a good example of this. In this article, substance flow analysis is employed to quantify and explore the temporal evolution of China's P consumption in main metabolic nodes from 1984 to 2008, and then the environmental implications for P flows into both surface waters and natural soil are investigated. Results show that the metabolic nodes of human life and animal husbandry have demanded increasingly more P inputs, while disseminating more and more P wastes, with the waste recycling ratios of these processes dropping, respectively, from 65.9% and 66.1% in 1984 to 50.7% and 40.6% by 2008. These change traits were closely related to national polices including the Household Contract Responsibility System and the Shopping Basket Program, as well as the policy vacuum existing between China's agricultural and environmental administration departments. To achieve high crop yield, increasingly more inorganic P fertilizers have been utilized in China, but their use efficiency has decreased by 46.3%. From 2003 to 2008, the total P load into surface waters was stabilized at about 900.0 kilotons (kt), while the total P load into natural soil increased by more than 3.8 times to 3,131.3 kt P in 2008. City life and the intensive breeding of crops are identified as the main targets for further pollution control and nutrient recycling in China. Some suggestions for achieving environmentally sound practices and resource sustainability in China are proposed at the end of this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper provides analysis of the availability of grain straw resources for centralised industrial usages and suitable areas in China at the prefectural level. China has abundant straw resources for both decentralised and centralised usages. Decentralised usages are inefficient and cannot absorb enough straw. However, centralised usages have technological and economic problems, such as product cost and resource supply, and therefore, a system analysis of the economic available resources and suitable areas are needed. Three main grain crops – rice, wheat, and corn – and three typical centralised usages – paper making, direct combustion power generation, and bioethanol – are investigated in this study. An optimal model is established on the basis of straw resource characteristics and techno-economic characteristics of the usages and used to calculate the distribution of suitable prefectures and the largest supply of resources for each usage. The study focuses on prefectures in 13 provinces with relatively abundant grain straw resources. The suitable areas for paper making are in North China, for direct combustion power generation are in North and Northeast China, for bioethanol are in Northeast China. The largest economic available resources for paper making, direct combustion power generation, and bioethanol are 47.5, 221.4, and 164.4 million tons, respectively. The operation cost and the ratio of straw actually collected from production are selected for conducting a sensitivity analysis. The impacts of other factors, including the geographical environment, local product demand, existing industry, change in total straw production, technical progress and straw from other crops, are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Substance flow analysis was used to develop a stock and flow model that was applied to time-series data from 1984 to 2008 to explore the correlation between change traits of anthropogenic phosphorus (P) metabolism in China and socioeconomic variables, quantify the accumulation of P in natural reservoirs and search for man-made stocks with the greatest potential for recovering P resources. The results showed that a total of 154.5 Tg P was extracted in China, but 80.5% was lost to natural water and soil, indicating the unsustainability of societal P metabolism. Urbanization, improved standards of living and population growth are responsible for the rising magnitudes of the P flows related to ore extraction, use and waste generation and the declining ratio of recycled P wastes, while inefficient small mines and corresponding restrictive policies contributed to the large fluctuation in ore extraction and waste generation in 2001–2008. Financial and policy support, combined with technological advances, strongly promoted the progress of the phosphate fertilizer industry in China, which transformed the country from a net importer into a net exporter of P materials after 2000. Three anthropogenic stocks were formed: 38.3 Tg P in agricultural soil, 19.0 Tg P in natural water and 105.3 Tg in natural soil. The last stock included 41.4 Tg P in mining wastes abandoned by small mines, which will be valuable human-induced mines for the secondary recovery of P resources in the future. Model uncertainties are analyzed, and conclusions and suggestions are presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It is important to analyze why phosphorus metabolism is unsustainable in China''s modern industrial society. In this paper, the Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) approach is used to build different models of phosphorus metabolism for the following three periods: the prehuman period, traditional agricultural period and modern industrial period. Based on these models, the evolution process of phosphorus metabolism in China is analyzed from the viewpoint of its metabolic structure and intensity. The indices of intensity analysis involve phosphorus input, phosphorus circulation and recycling efficiency, phosphorus production and production efficiency, water phosphorus emission and water emission proportion, solid waste phosphorus output and solid waste discharge proportion. Through the analysis of the evolution process, the key factors that cause the lack of sustainability of phosphorus metabolism in China are identified, which can be summarized by four aspects: the increase of soil phosphorus accumulation, the increase of water phosphorus emission, the decrease of recycling efficiency and the decrease of production efficiency in croplands. Furthermore, the specific unsustainable processes of phosphor resources utilization in China are discussed. For these unsustainable processes, the relevant solutions for the phosphor resources crisis are given. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China, an oil and NG scarcity country, is coal dependent, and this situation will remain for a long time. DME, as an ideal replacer of liquid fuel, is considered to develop. The efficient way of producing DME from coal is under research. Considering the components of coal and natural gas (NG), we choose co-feed (coal and NG) and co-production (electricity and DME) system (Co–Co system) to be studied on. Three systems which are the standalone system, co-generation system and Co–Co system are simulated by Aspen-Plus. The simulation results concerning material flows, exergy flows, CO2 emission and the evaluation indexes are obtained. It is found that Co–Co system has higher exergy efficiency, higher economic benefit, and it is environmental friendly because of releasing the least CO2.The analysis illustrates that Co–Co system has obviously advantage over the other two kinds of systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper, molecular modeling and optimization for the naphtha catalytic reforming process is studied. The catalytic reforming process is for producing high octane number gasoline by reforming reactions in three sequencing fixed bed reactors. Feed naphtha coming from an atmospheric distillation unit consisted of molecules from C5 to C10 including paraffin, iso-paraffin, naphthene, and aromatic. The molecular reaction network consisted of paraffin cracking, naphthene side-chain cracking, aromatic side-chain cracking, ring opening, ring closure, paraffin isomerization, dehydrogenation, and hydrogenation. A molecular model for catalytic reforming was built. On the basis of the simulation model, a process optimization was performed for feed temperature and pressure under constraints such as benzene content, aromatic content, and RON (Research Octane Number) limitations. High RON was contrasted to low benzene and aromatic content requirements. By optimizing and controlling the reaction pathway, we can obtain a final product with the highest profit and appropriate benzene and aromatic contents and RON value. This example shows significant benefits from applying molecular modeling to optimization in the process level. Since gasoline production is related to many different processes such as reforming, FCC, isomerization, alkylation, and so on, more benefits can be obtained by applying molecular modeling to plant-wide optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, molecular modeling of process streams and processes is combined with overall refinery optimization to select feedstocks and products, optimize the operation of different processes, and determine the most economic modifications. The molecular compositions of the hydrocarbon mixture are described using a MTHS (Molecular Type Homologous Series) matrix. To model reaction processes, structure-reactivity correlations are developed by regressing a wide range of pilot plant and commercial data. Molecular level kinetics is combined with current reactor modeling techniques. To integrate molecular modeling with plant-wide optimization, the interface between molecular compositions and bulk properties is also developed. The plant-wide optimization consists of a two-level optimization procedure, namely the site level and process level. The site level optimization addresses the overall trade-offs among the selections of feedstocks, products, processes, and the use of utilities. The process level optimization optimizes the individual processes by adjusting the detailed operating parameters. With the detailed molecular information available from the molecular model, it is possible to distinguish the contributions from different feedstocks and optimize the operation conditions to produce the most desirable products. A feedback mechanism is built for the coordination between these two levels. By optimizing the overall plant using molecular models, overall profit will be maximized by maximizing desired molecules to form valuable products, minimizing undesired ones, and routing all the molecules to their most appropriate destinations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture has played an indispensable role in the economic and social development of China. However, the inappropriate application of fertilizers in agriculture has brought about environmental pollution. Therefore, under the requirements of green development, the inevitable choice has been reducing the application amount while increasing the utilization rate of fertilizers. To solve the problems resulting from fertilizers, this research designed and made Balanced Nutrient Fertilizer based on the nutrient balance method. To test Balanced Nutrient Fertilizer, continuous planting experiments on three crops (peas, corns, and peaches) were carried out in Pinggu District, Beijing. Furthermore, a substance flow analysis (SFA) was conducted to obtain a deeper understanding of the Balanced Nutrient Fertilizer. Through a series of tests, the application of Balanced Nutrient Fertilizer was shown to increase the crop yield by 3%. The product quality was also improved. In addition, the amount of nutrients applied was significantly reduced in the experimental group (specifically, 35%–88% for nitrogen, 69%–93% for phosphorus, and 8%–82% for potassium). The results of the SFA revealed that applying the Balanced Nutrient Fertilizer could meet the required amount of nutrients for the best crop growth, greatly decrease the negative influence of chemical fertilizers on the soil and reduce agricultural non-point source pollution. Unlabelled Image • Balanced Nutrient Fertilizer can increase yield 3–7% with less fertilizer input. • The total application of NPK has been decreased by 35%–93%. • SFA was used to evaluate the influence of the fertilizer on environment. • A new calculation method of nutrient elements utilization rate [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, global warming has become increasingly devastating, leading to severe consequences, such as extreme weather events and sea-level rise. To reduce carbon dioxide emissions, it is essential to recognize different emission sources and key driving factors. Three main carbon emission sources from the period between 1990 and 2017 were identified in China: the energy industry, fuel combustion in other industries, and industrial process. For each source, a driving force model was developed via multiple linear regression. Based on these models, forecasts of the carbon intensity and total CO2 emissions were obtained from 2018 to 2030. The results demonstrate that the CO2 emission intensity and total emissions will continue to decrease but more effort will be required to achieve the goal of Paris Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implementing industrial symbiosis has emerged as a pivotal strategy for establishing eco-industrial parks worldwide to promote sustainable development and optimize resource utilization within industrial parks. However, the present evaluation framework for industrial symbiosis is nascent, which may hinder the ecological development of industrial parks. Therefore, to gauge industrial symbiosis efficacy and infrastructure soundness, we propose a revolutionary evaluation system that amalgamates social network analysis and ecological network analysis methodologies. Our evaluation system is meticulously customized to cater to the distinctive features and analytical requirements of eco-industrial parks and encompasses three primary facets: impact dissemination, sustainability, and resource optimization. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed evaluation system, we conducted a case study of Qinghai Salt Lake industrial park. The findings reveal that the industrial symbiosis level in Qinghai Salt Lake industrial park (QSLIP) improved during 2014–2018. Nevertheless, conventional indicators are unable to pinpoint certain issues, such as deterioration in waste reutilization quality, underscoring the significance and necessity of the indicator system proposed in this study. • This study presents a innovative assessment methodology for eco-industrial parks. • A detailed examination of the Qinghai Salt Lake Industrial Park was undertaken. • A fusion of social network analysis and ecological network analysis was introduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Process-related carbon emissions, which cannot be completely eliminated by the improvement of processes and energy structure, are recognized as an enormous challenge for in-depth decarbonization. To accelerate the achievement of carbon neutrality, the concept of 'artificial carbon cycle' is proposed based on the integrated system of process-related carbon emissions from high-emitting industries and CCU technology as a potential pathway towards a sustainable future. This paper conducts a systematic review on the integrated system with the case of China, which is the largest carbon-emitting and manufacturing country, to provide a clearer and more meaningful analysis. Multi-index assessment was used to organize the literature and draw the useful conclusion. Based on literature review, the high-quality carbon sources, reasonable carbon capture approaches and promising chemical products were identified and analyzed. Then the potential and practicability of the integrated system was further summarized and analyzed. Finally, key factors of future development including technology improvement, green hydrogen, clean energy and industrial cooperation were stressed to provide a theoretical reference for future researchers and policy makers. • Demonstration on the rationality and importance of applying CCU technology on process-based carbon emissions. • Multi-index assessment on adoptable carbon sources, possible pathways of carbon capture and carbon conversion. • Analysis on the potential and practicability of the integrated system to accelerate carbon neutrality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract With the rapid development of the economy and society, the number of waste household appliances in China has increased. Although the scale of China's waste household appliance industry continues to expand, the recovery rate is relatively low compared with developed countries. As waste household appliances are important recycling resources that have potential environmental risks and a high resource value, the effective recovery, recycling and utilization of these appliances are necessary to build a circular economy system, ease environmental crises and realize sustainable development in China. An agent-based model of a waste household appliance recovery system was established in this study by using complex adaptive system theory and agent-based modeling method. The simulation of agents' behavior and scenario analysis were performed using this model, and the results were analyzed to study the evolutionary trends of the industry under different policy scenarios. Based on the exploration and interpretation of the optimal scenario, policy suggestions are proposed for different parts of the system. Highlights • An agent-based model of the waste appliance recovery system is established. • Simulation of agent behavior and development trends of the system are studied. • Scenario analyses are performed under different policy conditions. • Recovery rate, pollution and policy cost are considered and balanced in the model. • Practical policy implications are proposed according to simulation results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose ‘material utility’ as a new concept for analyzing the influencing factors of resource productivity (RP). We demonstrate the application of this concept by empirically analyzing direct and indirect factors influencing RP. Results indicate the following: (1) RP is essentially an aggregate of the efficiency of a material's major utility for different resource categories by weight of their respective utility coefficients. (2) The direct factors influencing RP are utility coefficient (C), intensity of utility use in economic sectors (T) and economic structure (S); whereby C, T and S respectively contribute 7%, 119%, and −26% to the decline of fossil energy intensity (the inverse of RP for fossil energy) in China during the period of 1980–2010. (3) The indirect factors influencing RP are resource quality, technology and economic structure. Specifically, RP can be increased by using higher quality resources, e.g., metal ore with higher ore grade. One unit (1%) increase in research and development (R&D) expenditure intensity and percentage of tertiary industry will result in 427 US$/ton and 40 US$/ton increase in RP, respectively. This research suggests new avenues for improving the accuracy of RP as an indicator and for policy measurement for increasing RP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Traditional and CDU pathways were evaluated multi-dimensionally. • The MFA-LCA-TEA coupled model was conducted with industrial data in China. • 23 pathways and 7 chemicals were covered for systematic analysis. • Low-carbon strategies increase the comprehensive competitiveness of CDU pathways. • CO 2 emissions and economic growth can be decoupled for sustainable chemical production. Carbon dioxide utilization (CDU) for chemical production is beneficial for achieving carbon neutrality and constructing an artificial carbon cycle. However, the industrialization of CDU technology is facing the concerns about environmental impacts, energy consumption and economic effects. To better illustrate the comprehensive performances of CDU technology and optimize chemical production, this study conducts a multi-dimensional evaluation on CDU and traditional pathways following a scenario-based optimization, which covers 23 pathways for 7 identified bulk chemicals. The results reveal that ethanol is the most suitable chemical to be transitioned preferentially and produced with CDU technology based on China's current technology level. The development of electro-catalytic conversion may benefit CDU pathways especially for oxirane. The results of scenario analysis reveal that the competitivity and priority of various pathways may change significantly with the deployment of low-carbon strategies. Then the results of conditional optimization reveal that the transition of chemical production pattern motivated by CDU may significantly impact on resource consumption and technology proportion, which brings about an increase of 680 % in H 2 consumption. The transition may also decouple the relationship between carbon emissions and economic growth, which drives the production emissions to drop from 193 Mt/year to −27 Mt/year and carbon intensity to drop from 80 t/104 USD to −8 t/104 USD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: GHG (Increasing greenhouse gas) emissions in China imposes enormous pressure on China’s government and society. The increasing GHG trend is primarily driven by the fast expansion of high energy-intensive sectors including the chemical industry. This study investigates energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the processes of chemical production in China through calculating the amounts of CO2 emissions and estimating the reduction potential in the near future. The research is based on a two-level perspective which treats the entire industry as Level one and six key sub-sectors as Level two, including coal-based ammonia, calcium carbide, caustic soda, coal-based methanol, sodium carbonate, and yellow phosphorus. These two levels are used in order to address the complexity caused by the fact that there are more than 40 thousand chemical products in this industry and the performance levels of the technologies employed are extremely uneven. Three scenarios with different technological improvements are defined to estimate the emissions of the six sub-sectors and analyze the implied reduction potential in the near future. The results highlight the pivotal role that regulation and policy administration could play in controlling the CO2 emissions by promoting average technology performances in this industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The depletion of traditional energy sources and severe environmental pollution are hindrances in meeting the increasing energy demands of the growing global population. Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has been widely applied in China to replace traditional energy. The factors that affect the development of the PV industry in China are complex. This research sheds light on the development process of the PV industry in China by considering the PV installed capacity as an indicator of industrial development. A quantitative evaluation method was established to assess the PV industry and its influencing factors by developing a driving force model. This model combines the methods of factor quantification and multiple regression analysis by considering demand, market, policy, technology, and enterprise factors. The results show that from 2006 to 2008, policy factors played the most important role accounting for about 50% of the total impact, and since 2009, the impacts of technology and demand factors are more significant in the PV industry from the aspects of supply and demand accounting for 36% and 32%, respectively. The future trends of PV industry are predicted based on the evolution of the influencing factors. If guided by existing policies, the PV installed capacity will stabilize at 403 GW in 2025. The emphasis on energy storage technology in the future will also significantly promote the PV industry enabling it to reach 773 GW, and thereby, reduce about 0.87 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions in that year compared to that with coal-based thermal power generation. This study provides a theoretical basis for multiple factor analysis in the photovoltaic industry and a deeper understanding for policy makers to coordinate the structure of energy generation in China in the future. • A driving force model of China's photovoltaic industry is established. • Factors influencing the annual photovoltaic install capacity and their contributions are determined. • Photovoltaic industry is a good form of industrial development. • Future trends in photovoltaic industry in different scenarios are explored. • Practical policy recommendations are proposed based on factor and trend analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive anthropogenic activities have led to high-level ammonia loss and volatilization, which is regarded as a key factor in Chinese haze formation. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of ammonia emission estimations is accomplished at both temporal (1980–2016) and spatial (provincial) scales using a mass-balanced model, and emission projections through 2030 are also studied in different development scenarios. The results show that the ammonia emissions increased from 4.7 Tg N yr−1 in 1980 to 11 Tg N yr−1 in 2016, which is an approximately 2.4-fold increase. The cropland and livestock emissions are the largest contributors, as most reports show approximately 80% contributions; however, nonagriculture sources of fuel combustion, waste treatment and ammonia escape have grown rapidly in recent years, accounting for 14% in 2016. The spatial differences also reveal the complex heterogeneity in Chinese provinces. In addition, the emission intensities of major agriculture and non-agriculture sources are 0–80 kg N ha−1 yr−1 and over 100 kg N ha−1 yr−1, respectively, indicating a higher degree of ammonia concentration from non-agriculture emissions, which should attract wide concern. In terms of scenario analysis, emissions would reach 12.8 Tg N yr−1 in 2030 under the currently developed model and 7.3 Tg N yr−1 under a series of reduction policies; the spatial analysis also shows that the North China Plain has a 2.1 Tg N yr−1 reduction potential. The results of this study provide new insights into ammonia emission estimations and a better understanding of the environmental impacts of ammonia emitted from different sources. Excessive anthropogenic activities have led to high-level ammonia loss and volatilization, which is regarded as a key factor in Chinese haze formation. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of ammonia emission estimations is accomplished at both temporal (1980–2016) and spatial (provincial) scales using a mass-balanced model, revealing the temporal-spatial differences of the complex heterogeneity in China. In addition, the high-resolution sectorial emission pattern is also revealed by land-use model, indicating a higher degree of ammonia concentration from non-agriculture emissions, which should attract wider concern. Scenario analyses are also studied to reveal the emission tendency in different development scenario. The results of this study provide new insights into ammonia emission estimations and a better understanding of the environmental impacts of ammonia emitted from different sources. Unlabelled Image • Temporal and spatial variations in the ammonia emission were quantified. • The nonagriculture emissions show higher emission intensity with agriculture. • The ammonia emission to 2030 show different trends in scenario analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is promoting extended producer responsibility (EPR) for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). However, the present EPR policy in China, in fund mode, has been facing the challenge of fund deficit severely since 2016. A new sustainable EPR mode is needed to solve this problem. In this paper, a mandatory recycling EPR mode is designed and studied as a potential solution. A quantitative evaluation system is innovatively established to evaluate the effectiveness of the mode and to compare the new mode to the present mode. The evaluation system first summarizes a supply chain scheme of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) in each mode, which describes the life cycle of China's EEE from products to wastes to renewed resources. The supply chain schemes are complex since they contain five to six different stakeholders. Then classical game theory models are applied to the supply chain scheme based on the interaction among different stakeholders to calculate the indicators used for evaluation. At last, the two modes are compared in terms of economic, environmental and social effects in the case of the air-conditioner market. Results show the mandatory recycling mode is similar to the fund mode in economic and social effects. It is more financially sustainable, capable of enabling a higher recycling rate and more beneficial to certified recycling companies. Therefore, applying the recycling obligation mode in the future to maintain the EPR system is recommended. Unlabelled Image • A mandatory recycling EPR mode is established for China and studied. • Informer sector of waste electrical and electronic equipment market is considered. • A quantitative evaluation system employing the game theory is established. • The new mode and the present mode are compared in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuously increasing amount of solid waste (SW) that is being generated in China calls for environmental assessment and management strategies. However, the pattern and magnitude of the reactive nitrogen (Nr) loss associated with SW have received negligible attention. Here, we established a systematic Nr flow assessment of the generation, treatment and emissions of SW in China from 1978 to 2015. The Nr flow of SW increased by 87% during this period, with the livestock sector being the largest contributor. Composting and animal feed were the two main methods of SW treatment, accounting for more than half, whereas the two fastest growing treatments were remanufacturing and sewage treatment, which increased 13- and 62-fold, respectively. Each SW treatment method would inevitably lead to Nr emissions. Our results showed that the total Nr emissions from SW treatment increased from 8.7 Tg N yr−1 in 1978 to 18.6 Tg N yr−1 in 2015. The development of sustainable SW management requires considering both economic and environmental impacts. We use an optimization model (Solid Waste Optimization Life-Cycle Framework) and provide evidence that recycling SW resources will be an option for economic and environmental trade-offs. Image 1 • Temporal evolution in Nr flow assessment of solid waste was quantified. • Total Nr emissions from solid waste treatment increased by 114% from 1978 to 2015. • The Solid Waste Optimization Life-Cycle Framework is applied for scenario analysis. • Solid waste recycling is an option for economic and environmental trade-offs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the economy and society of China are developing rapidly, various ecological and environmental problems continue to emerge. The problem of air pollution is becoming an issue of increasing concern. Since 2013, Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei Provinces have collaborated to control air pollution and have achieved certain success. However, the air pollution problem in the capital, Beijing, remains severe. In this study, a quantitative evaluation and analysis method is established for assessing urban air quality and its influencing factors by developing a driving force model. The model combines multiple regression and principal component analysis to account for social, economic, meteorological, and regional factors. The influencing factors with the highest contributions are regional transmission, energy consumption, and industrial structure. This model is used to project the future trend of the air quality in Beijing based on the evolution of the influencing factors, aimed to provide a theoretical basis for policies improving Beijing's air quality. • A driving force model of the air quality in Beijing is established. • Factors influencing the annual air quality and their contributions are determined. • Future trends in air quality in different scenarios are explored. • Practical policy implications are proposed based on factor and trend analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comprehensive assessments and mitigation potential of nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions are particularly important, especially in China. We report that the total N 2 O emissions in China increased by 140% from 1978 to 2015, with croplands being the major emitters accounting for 35–48% of the emissions. Over the last 15 years, N 2 O emissions from industry, aquaculture and waste management have grown rapidly, while those from cropland, livestock, grassland, and human consumption have grown slowly. The spatial differences in China make the assessments of N 2 O emission patterns complex. Compared with other greenhouse gas emissions (including carbon dioxide, methane, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride) reported by the World Bank, we found that N 2 O emissions contributed approximately 9–20% (carbon dioxide equivalent) of the major greenhouse gas emissions from 1978 to 2012 in China. The growth rate of N 2 O emissions in China was 1.8 times greater than that throughout the world between 1978 and 2012. Additionally, we assessed the mitigation potential for various measures from the perspectives of production and consumption. The results show that knowledge-based nitrogen management (including the application of controlled-release nitrogen fertilizer, nitrification inhibitor and urease inhibitor, and optimal nitrogen fertilizer rate based on soil nitrogen tests), large farm sizes, flue gas denitration and healthy diet habits are effective strategies to cope with the continued growth of N 2 O emissions. The results of these quantitative scenario simulations are critical for the formulation and implementation of corresponding policy measures. • Temporal and spatial variations in N 2 O emissions were quantified. • The total N 2 O emissions in China increased by 140% from 1978 to 2015. • The N 2 O emissions in China contribute 9–20% of the CO 2 -equivalent GHG emissions. • A quantitative N 2 O mitigation potential is proposed. • Knowledge-based N management is an effective scenario for mitigating N 2 O emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remanufacturing and direct reuse are considered important measures for promoting the circular economy and improving resource efficiency. Automotive production is a typical resource- and energy-intensive industrial sector, and is a prime market for remanufacturing and direct reuse. Assessing the effect of remanufacturing and direct reuse on the automotive production industry from the perspective of resource efficiency will provide an important reference for improving understandings of remanufacturing and guiding relevant policies in a broader context. A literature review reveals few studies focusing on the resource efficiency of remanufacturing and direct reuse, and the relative lack of a generally accepted indicator to assess the resource efficiency of industrial processes. This paper promotes a new indicator, resource productivity of industrial process , and constructs a material flow model to calculate the resource productivity of China’s automotive industry. Results suggest that the indicator and its analytical model are effective tools to assess resource efficiency. Results also suggest that compared to a case where remanufacturing and direct reuse are not employed, adding these processes in China’s automotive supply chain would increase resource productivity of industrial process by 7.1% in a high efficiency scenario. Based on these findings, policy recommendations for applying the indicator at industry level and encouraging remanufacturing and direct reuse are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China will establish a national emission trading scheme (ETS) in 2017, and the excessive development of coal-to-materials may hinder China′s emission reduction goals, specifically to reduce carbon emissions intensity by 40–45% from 2005 to 2020. In this study, the status of China′s coal-to-materials projects is presented, based on which we forecasted the high, middle and low CO 2 emission scenarios for the coal-to-materials industry in 2020, which were determined to be approximately 580, 290, and 180 Mt CO 2 , respectively. The high scenario is approximately equivalent to the total emission from Canada, the world's 11th-largest emitter in 2014. The main purpose of this study is to research the impacts of ETS on the coal-to-materials industry in 2020. Oil-to-materials is an ineluctable and powerful competitor to the coal-to-materials industry, complicating this matter. Therefore, the Cournot model was applied to quantitatively analyze the competition between these two monopolistic entities and determine the influence of oil, coal and carbon prices on CO 2 emissions from coal-to-materials. The visual simulation of the results shows that ETS can improve the competitiveness of oil-to-materials, resulting in a decline in production of coal-to-materials. However, the effect of the carbon cost with historical price range of Chinese ETS pilots on mitigating CO 2 emissions from the coal-to-materials industry is limited. High oil prices and low coal prices can increase the emissions from coal-to-materials significantly. Our study also provides a tool to analyze the feasibility of ETSs for a set emission reduction goal. Additionally, the necessary sensitivity analysis was also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of motor vehicle fleet in China during the past decade has produced a cascade of challenges, including dealing with end-of-life passenger cars. To date, these cars have not been effectively collected or recycled. Policies must be deliberately devised and reformed to facilitate state-of-the-art vehicle recycling and minimize waste arising from end-of-life cars. In this study, dynamic modeling and cost-benefit analysis have been employed to investigate how polices, including government subsidies, a value added tax and a deposit-refund system, may affect recycling of end-of-life passenger cars. The results indicate that a combination of deposits and subsidies will surpass all of the other independent policies in terms of the recycling rate. This combination is expected to lead to a recycling rate of 80% of end-of-life passenger cars by 2050. However, the government will have to pay an annual 62 billion Chinese Yuan in the middle of the century for old-for-new replacement subsidies, posing a heavy burden on public finance. Comparatively, the deposit-only scenario will cost the government 4.7 billion Chinese Yuan and elevate the recycling rate to 46% in 2050. These policies may help curb the black market and promote the legitimate business of dismantling and recycling in the long run. Moreover, the prospect of vehicle remanufacturing will play another key role in diminishing the black market. The results in China are compared with policies and practices in Europe, Japan and South Korea to help decision-makers develop the most appropriate strategies for end-of-life vehicle management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper reports China''s eco-efficiency trends and the cause of their dynamic behavior during the period 1978–2010. We show three main results. First, in general, eco-efficiency indicators increased for resource utilization, energy consumption and emissions for air and water, and relative decoupling occurred in China at a high level in the global context. Second, decoupling from economic growth has been absolute for the discharge of soot, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia nitrogen. Third, during the years 2001–2010, the decoupling level was very low, and resource utilization was almost coupled with GDP due to the high consumption and dramatic increase of mineral extraction. The causes of the observed dynamics of eco-efficiency and decoupling were also explored, with the conclusion drawn that the effect of technology was the predominant positive factor while structure effects were the negative factors for resource and energy efficiency; the technological effect of pipe-end treatment played a dominant role in the improving eco-efficiency of pollutant emissions and decoupling from economic growth. Furthermore, implications for further policymaking to setting proper targets for the relative decoupling of resource use, especially for mineral resource use and economic growth, are suggested. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Data rectification can be classified into two parts: data reconciliation, gross error detection and identification. The identification of gross error is to locate variables that have gross errors and estimate their values by using measurements information and process model. Gross error detection and identification is the bottleneck of data rectification. For bias type of gross error, existing methods cannot deal with the case effectively that there are multiple gross errors in measurements. In order to address the problem, the concept of gross error identifiability of process is proposed. And the identifiable condition of gross errors is derived. The identifiable condition can be used to determine whether the gross errors contained in the system could be identified. An identification approach based on parameter estimation is proposed. The identification results show that the method can identify multiple gross errors existing in the measurements accurately. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper deals with the application of emergy analysis of industrial systems in considering wastes. Making process system engineering decisions that are ecologically conscious requires emergy analysis of both industrial and ecological processes. The traditional emergy analysis methods of a natural ecological system usually do not consider the impact of wastes. This paper considers the impact of wastes and improves existing emergy analysis methods for industrial system. A new index of sustainability for industrial processes is presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Industrial parks (IPs) have always been an important driving force for China's economic development. China has a great number of IPs, and this number is continuing to increase. The rapid development of IPs has brought great pressure on national resources utilization and environmental protection. The Chinese government has committed to the green development of IPs. In recent years, a series of policies on the green development of IPs have been introduced and implemented. Different from the limitation on the number of IPs in previous studies, this study used a larger data set containing 911 IPs. These IPs were divided into eight types according to their leading industries. The long-tail effect model was attempted to be used to provide quantitative description and analysis of the numerical distribution patterns of the indicators of economic output, environmental pollution, and resource consumption in IPs. Based on the long-tail effect model, for this paper, the performance of green development (PGD) in different types of IPs and IPs in different regions was further analyzed. The results show that China's IPs exhibit the distribution pattern of a long-tail effect in all three aspects mentioned above. In terms of environmental pollution, for some types of IPs, the individual performance of IPs in the head part of the model is more prominent. For other types of IPs, the cumulative results caused by IPs in the tail part of the model should be of concern. The PGD of IPs is closely related to their types. There are also obvious differences in the PGD of IPs in eastern and western China. Based on detailed discussion of the research results, at the end, policy implications are provided for the government to make decisions on the green development of IPs. • Indicators' distribution in China's industrial parks exhibits the long-tail effect. • Green development strategies of industrial parks are related to industrial types. • Focus of green development of industrial parks in east and west China is different. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]