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This study examined learners' productive competence in collocations and idioms by means of their performance on two interdependent tasks. Participants were two groups of English as a Foreign Language undergraduate and graduate students from the English department at Jordan's Yarmouk University. The two tasks included the following: a multiple choice task of 16 randomly selected Arabic idioms and collocations of the verb "kasura" (broke), which was designed to reveal learners' ability to recognize the correct collocants from among four distractors, and a translation task of the same idiomatic expressions and collocations intended to explore learners' proficiency in this linguistic area. Data analysis indicated that the overall performance of students in the target idiomatic expressions and collocations was far from satisfactory considering that they were high level English majors. Only half of the students' attempts on the objective recognition task were correct, and only 16.61 percent of students total attempts with the translation task were correct. Participants used 11 distinct communication strategies when rendering into English the collocations and idiomatic expressions (e.g., avoidance, false collocation, overgeneralization, derivativeness, verbosity, and idiomacity). (Contains 46 references.) (SM)

This study investigated Taiwanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students knowledge of English collocations and the collocational errors they made. The subjects were 60 students from a college in Taiwan. The research instrument was a self-designed Simple Completion Test that measured students knowledge of four types of lexical collocations: free combinations, restricted collocations, figurative idioms, and pure idioms. The results indicated that, for these students, free combinations created the least amount of difficulty, whereas pure idioms were the most challenging. Additionally, students performed about equally well on restricted collocations and figurative idioms. In general, the students deviant answers demonstrated their insufficient knowledge of English collocations. It is concluded that EFL learners errors in collocations can be attributed to negative first language transfer. Test items are appended. (Contains 26 references.) (Author/SM)

This study examined first exposures to oral and written English from ages 1-16 years, surveying 212 Ming Chuan University (Taiwan) students. The survey asked about the language spoken at home; age at and context of hearing, reading, writing, and speaking the first English word; experiences with conversations in English; and problems learning English. Data analysis found only a slight difference between the later English achievement of students who heard their first English word at the age of 6 years or younger and those who heard their first English word at the age of 12 years or older. These results suggest the existence of compulsory and customary patterns across all kinds of English learning situations in Taiwan. These patterns are largely non-idiomatic and replete with many common errors in using prepositions, articles, verb tenses, and pronouns. They resist teaching efforts aimed at promoting idiomatic English. In speech especially, the compulsory and customary tend to overwhelm the possibility of authentic dialogue in which idiomatic English could be learned. Two appendixes present the survey and the first English words remembered by respondents, listed in order of frequency. (Contains 18 tables.) (SM)

A study investigated the extent to which English compound nouns are problematic for learners of English as a second language and identifies some causes of this comprehension difficulty. Subjects were 34 university students, of widely varying language backgrounds, in courses in English for academic purposes. Each was administered an instrument designed to measure comprehension of both real and invented English compound nouns. For each compound noun, a range of possible definitions, including distractors, was offered. Results suggest that the comprehension of some compound nouns is problematic because their idiomatic and syntactic opacity, in the absence of culture-specific pragmatic knowledge, constrains the identification of deleted elements. However, when the learner has sufficient exposure to the language, these difficulties are overcome readily. There is also evidence that learners use figurative strategies in dealing with idiomaticity. It is concluded that comprehension problems faced by learners of English as a second language encountering compound nouns may be very similar to those faced by native speakers. (Contains 35 references, 5 tables, and 4 figures.) (MSE)

An ethnographic study examined slang as spoken on campuses of two universities in the United States, one on the West Coast and one in the Midwest. Subjects were students from Intercultural Communication classes, who served as participant/observers and data gatherers. Subjects were instructed to collect slang terms that they heard on campus and, along with each term, they were to provide a definition for the term and a sample discourse. The terms for each sample were then independently examined for themes through the process of analytic induction, and differences in emergent themes were resolved through discussion. Results indicated a total of 64 themes and, of these themes: 56 (88%) were present in the data for both universities; 3 (5%) were found only at the Midwestern university; and 5 (8%) themes were found only at the university in the West. Results revealed that across the miles college students use slang to talk about very similar themes. However, local culture generates unique meanings for common terms and unique terms for common meanings. Findings suggest that the individual is an active agent in making selections about how to talk. This study provides evidence for a theory of communication grounded in the intersection of the global, local, and individual--it reconceptualizes the roles and relationships of both culture and the individual. (Includes 5 tables of data and 4 endnotes; contains 12 references.) (CR)

In the book, "Talking from 9 to 5," Deborah Tannen suggests that females have difficulty listening to males in the workplace because of the masculine inclination to talk sports the majority of the time. Men use sports idioms, metaphors, and cliches, making business a "peculiar language" which excludes "naive" listeners, females. To test the hypothesis that females do not understand sports idioms, common sports idioms were read aloud to college students to see whether males and females were equally knowledgeable about the meaning of the idioms. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 30 years old with the mean age of 21. Results indicated that females responded to 66% of the spoken idioms, while males responded to 72% of the items, a difference of 6%. The study also aimed to gather common sports idioms with which to train people in listening to understand sports idioms. A list of 42 sports idioms is included. (NKA)

Lexical derivation in the Navajo verb system is described, with examples. Derivation involves four broad processes: (1) straightforward use of verbal roots and adverbial-derivational prefixes, with their base meanings; (2) extension of base root meaning, often by metaphor, to permit application to disparate concepts; (3) figurative use of adverbial-derivational prefixes and prefix compounds; and (4) idiom. Derivational prefixes and their patterns of occurrence are outlined, and patterns signifying extension of meaning of verbal roots are delineated for a number of verbs. It is noted that most of the noun lexicon is derived from verbs, and that some of the stem nouns the ancestral Navajos brought with them from the Northland five centuries ago have undergone changed meaning in the new geographical/ecological environment of the Southwest. Borrowing from English has become more common. (MSE)

It is proposed that because (1) adult learners of English as a Second Language face great challenges in communicating with native English speakers; and (2) native English-speakers can learn strategies to compensate for some of these difficulties, there is a need for instruction in these strategies and skills for Americans in international business. The nature of miscommunication in international contexts is examined, including such factors as vocabulary, idioms and lexical collocations, accent and pronunciation (or in written communication, spelling and handwriting), discourse strategies, and style or register. The solution proposed is an instructional module designed to teach American students of international business some ways to facilitate communication with non-native English-speakers. The approach is based on a model of the effects of register on communication, particularly in disparate dialects, and on analysis of the characteristics of International English. With the instructional module, students are made aware of potential communication problems and common patterns in non-native English, and perform exercises in receptive, productive, and interactive skills. These exercises focus on awkward grammar, spellings, and word choices, problematic vocabulary, recognition of idioms, accents, and colloquial speech. The exercises culminate with oral and written communications with non-native speakers. (MSE)

This paper argues that one important reflection of a culture's status is the existence of general reference books on it. To this end, it discusses the forthcoming "Dictionary of Smoky Mountain English," a book designed to address the lack of a comprehensive reference work on Appalachian speech and language patterns in this region. The paper examines the background, rationale, sources, and main features of the dictionary, along with some of the special considerations that have emerged in the production of the work. The dictionary is largely based on the research of Joseph Sargent Hall, who studied and recorded the speech of the area beginning in the 1930s, along with 20th-century local and historical literature, interviews, glossaries, and local fiction. The dictionary entries contain information on pronunciation and etymology, details of grammatical patterning, cross-references to general works on Appalachia, and calibration of entries to other works, such as the "Oxford English Dictionary" and the "Dictionary of American Regional English." (MDM)

In learning the Japanese language, kanji idiom learning is as important as kanji (Chinese characters) learning. A kanji idiom intelligent computer assisted instructional (ICAI) system called JUGAME was developed. It can handle approximately 3,000 kanji idioms and has a puzzle game environment within a learning environment using Open Software Foundation (OSF)/Motif graphic user interface. In this environment, it is the goal of the game for students to find all kanji idioms hidden in the puzzle by combining puzzle elements (kanji). Although it is generally said to be difficult for foreigners to learn kanji idioms, they can be learned through playing the puzzle game without loss of learner motivation. Moreover, JUGAME does not prepare the puzzle patterns in advance. According to the teaching strategy, JUGAME generates an adaptive puzzle pattern focusing on the knowledge level of the student. JUGAME has been implemented on SONY EWS NWS-1750. Concepts are illustrated in four figures. Contains seven references. (Author/MSE)

The increasing demand for good business English Second Language courses is stymied by a lack of research and good teaching tools concerning speech acts used in business meetings. This study analyzed speech acts used in two business meetings and evaluated four business English textbooks to determine the type of English used in real business settings and its reflection in current instructional materials. An analysis of the language used in two editorial meetings of a university publishing department found that business English in real-life situations was informal, subtle, direct, idiomatic, and full of overlap and incomplete sentences. Unexpected forms, which appear to mean one thing but actually mean another, were used, and speech acts were expressed using so many variants that no particular form could be identified as the canonical form. None of these characteristics was adequately covered in the four textbooks reviewed. (Contains 11 references.) (MDM)

A project to develop instructional materials for English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) instruction is described. It consisted of development and testing of materials on the correct use of American idioms to limited-English-speakers. Twenty-five idioms were selected for use as the basis of the script for an instructional videotape. The idioms were then incorporated into exercises, which were then compiled in handbooks for students and teachers (not included here). The videotape (not included here) features dramatized situations in which the idiom is used correctly, then dramatized interpretation of what the idiom seems to mean, and an explanation of what the idiom really means. A version of the videotape was also produced for the hearing-impaired. The current report describes the process of developing the materials and pilot-testing them with literacy students in several locations. Although there was not sufficient time to post-test students using the materials, it was found that they were well received by both students and literacy providers. A source address for the materials is provided. (MSE) (Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Literacy Education)

This study examined the ways in which teachers of English as a second language (ESL) perceive the semantic and syntactic constraints that govern word use and the strategies they use to explain lexical anomalies to students. Twelve native speaking ESL teachers from 2 university-level intensive English programs were asked to identify, categorize, and explain lexical anomalies in each of 14 sentences. It was found that 3 teachers did not identify any categories for any of the 14 anomalies and that 7 teachers categorized fewer than 4 of the anomalies. The label that was most frequently used was "connotation," while only one teacher used "collocation," a basic term in lexical research, to categorize inappropriate idiomatic usage. The results of this study indicate that certain categories of inappropriate usage, especially animate/inanimate collocations and positive/negative collocations, are fairly transparent to ESL teachers. Although teachers did not consistently identify lexical categories, their explanations revealed considerable insight into what limits word use in these categories. The explanation strategy of illustrating word meaning by showing the relations between two or more words and by giving examples were often used appropriately in spite of inappropriate categorizations. (MDM)

Some of the teaching practices of 10 foreign language teachers in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area are reviewed in this study of second language (L2) instruction. Focus is on how idioms are taught in university German foreign language courses, which textbooks and reference materials available in the German and English fields highlight idioms, and whether the teachers are using or adapting these textbooks or creating materials with which to teach idioms. Based on the lack of systematic approach to teaching idioms to German students in the area, and on the dearth of idioms treated in the current first and second-year language textbooks, it may be concluded that either idioms are not important at all or that teachers introduce idioms to the student. More research is needed to assess the best method to use when teaching idioms in the L2 classroom. If knowing idioms and using them appropriately are part of communicative competence, then L2 teachers must introduce them more regularly and systemically to their students. Teacher interview questions are appended. Contains 26 references. (LB)

In this study, teacher language was described at the beginning and end of a school year. A third-grade teacher's language directed toward the entire class of 20 students as well as toward a group of 5 language-impaired children within that class was examined separately. The teacher's language content, form and usage were analyzed separately from videotaped language arts lessons. Results indicated that the teacher's language had a more syntactically complex form at the end of the school year than at the beginning for both groups of children. Little change was observed in the use of figurative language forms. The teacher directed more idiomatic expressions to the language-impaired children at the end of the school year than at the beginning. In the area of language use, the teacher used more information-giving acts during the samples collected at the end of the school year. The percentage of information-seeking questions and requests decreased at the end of the school year. These results were consistent in instruction directed to the entire class as well as to the students who were identified as language-impaired. (Contains 41 references.) (PB)

There are certain pre-coded (formulaic) utterances conventionally triggered by certain communication situations, and their use is expected and deemed appropriate because they are seen as part of everyday politeness formulas. Lack of an English equivalent indicates cultural differences governing their use. Some routines are taught explicitly and their use is prompted by adults in socializing children. These expressions are part of every competent speaker's repertoire, and include proverbs, idioms, greetings, apologies, thanks, and leave-taking. Turkish is rich in formulaic expressions, both spoken and written, evidenced in proverbs, idioms, and one-word formulas serving different functions in different contexts. A study investigated the structure and function of such routines in Turkish in naturally-occurring and filmed conversations of a variety of individuals. Subjects were equal numbers of males and females aged 30-55. Only two of the formulaic expressions identified were proverbs; the remainder were pragmatic idioms. Analysis indicates that the expressions were used as politeness devices, helping the conversation progress smoothly. It is concluded that the study of prefabricated, routinized expressions can reveal both a substantial part of the native speaker's communicative competence and the values and beliefs of the society. A 31-item bibliography is included. (MSE)

To the synchronic linguistic analyst, an idiom is, by nature, semantically noncompositional. However, the language-user-in-culture may know (among other things) how the association between the non-literal and the literal meanings of an idiom is culturally motivated. This paper looks at such cultural knowledge of idiomaticity, with evidence for "Idiom Calquing"--the literal borrowing of idioms across languages, and "Folk Literalization"--the re-creation of literal meanings for idioms. (Contains 22 references.) (Author)