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This study aims to analyze and to describe, in terms of information processing theory, the thinking processes of junior high school students as they solved problems involving direct and inverse proportions. This study design is qualitative and exploratory-descriptive in nature. 26 students in the seventh grade of SMP Negeri 1 Kota Ternate were assigned direct and inverse proportion assignments. Eventually, based on the students' thinking potential and verbal and written communication skills, 3 students who could describe the thinking process based on information processing theory components were selected. The instruments for data collection consisted of questions on direct and inverse proportions, supported by interview procedures. Based on the analysis and discussion of research results, three categories of student thinking processes can be identified: (1) multiple thinking categories in solving direct proportion problems, which occur in the perception component when S1 students write or express problem solving plans using multiple strategies to process accepted information; (2) the multiplication thinking category in solving inverse proportion problems, which occurs in the perception component; and (3) the generalization thinking category in solving inverse proportion problems, which occurs in the perception component.

Social identities impact the way individuals see themselves and their career options but career theories have been slow to the call in exploring how social identities interface with theoretical assumptions. The purpose of this study was to examine how social identities affect and inform specific dimensions identified by cognitive information processing (CIP) theory as being essential for effective career decision-making, that is, self-knowledge, options knowledge, decision-making process and skills, career beliefs, and overall career decision. Seventy-six students across ten sections of an undergraduate CIP-based career development course answered questions on an anonymous survey related to how their social identities impacted aspects of their career decision-making. Frequencies for social identities were calculated for each CIP dimension, and 11 categories identified for open-ended responses using the consensual qualitative research-modified approach accompanied pre-determined domains based on CIP theory. Across each component, the most common SI was age and generational differences. While students expressed the influence of social identities as occurring in each CIP dimension, statements related to the self-concept category occurred most often and were present in each domain. Our findings support previous work that the presence and impact of SIs on career decision-making components is undeniable, but also not universal. CIP theory provides a structure and avenues for discussing the role of social identities in career decision-making.

Causal reasoning is a fundamental cognitive ability that enables individuals to learn about the complex interactions in the world around them. However, the mechanisms that underpin causal reasoning are not well understood. For example, it remains unresolved whether children's causal inferences are best explained by Bayesian inference or associative learning. The two experiments and computational models reported here were designed to examine whether 5- and 6-year-olds will retrospectively reevaluate objects--that is, adjust their beliefs about the causal status of some objects presented at an earlier point in time based on the observed causal status of other objects presented at a later point in time--when asked to reason about 3 and 4 objects and under varying degrees of information processing demands. Additionally, the experiments and models were designed to determine whether children's retrospective reevaluations were best explained by associative learning, Bayesian inference, or some combination of both. The results indicated that participants retrospectively reevaluated causal inferences under minimal information-processing demands (Experiment 1) but failed to do so under greater information processing demands (Experiment 2) and that their performance was better captured by an associative learning mechanism, with less support for descriptions that rely on Bayesian inference.

Previous research on gender differences in young people's digital development has shown that boys and girls differ in frequency and type of internet use, but vital gaps in the literature remain. In recent years, gender is increasingly considered to be a multidimensional concept with a growing number of young people identifying as non-binary (i.e. genderfluid, an umbrella term for gender identities that are not conforming to the male/female dichotomy). Non-binary youth more frequently engage with a variety of digital risks such as misinformation, cyberbullying, and co-rumination than binary youth. Despite this, no research so far has investigated how digital development differs between non-binary and binary youth. In this online survey study among adolescents in six European countries (N=6,221), we focus on differences in digital skills and digital activities. Non-binary youth tend to make greater use of the internet for content creation and mental and physical health information than boys and girls. They also report greater content creation skills than boys and girls. Disparities in terms of entertainment and social relationship use are also found. Furthermore, findings on digital skills indicate that non-binary youth closely mirror boys in this regard. We conclude with recommendations for future research that should help bolster our understanding of how digital contexts may predict the development and well-being of non-binary youth.

The concept of literacy is relevant in many areas of life, both inside and out of the classroom. With science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) being fast-growing fields, STEM literacy in particular holds an important place in today's education system and beyond. While there is not a single definition for STEM literacy, it is impacted by possible assumptions educators make about students and the learning process. These assumptions are derived from many sources, including personal beliefs, past experiences, and learning theories that individuals utilize. This paper discusses the conceptualizations of STEM literacy and related limitations within three different learning theories: information processing, constructivism, and sociocultural theory. A theoretical framework is then discussed that addresses these limitations and incorporates a sociopolitical lens on scientific literacy, for the sake of helping educators identify and adjust their own perceptions for the sake of better supporting students.

The objective of the paper was to outline the possibility of utilising information from online job postings and text-mining analyses to identify mismatches and gaps between learning outcomes prepared by universities, and the knowledge and skills that employers need. The study uses job advertisement contents and learning outcomes documents from universities. We analysed both data sets using word importance classification, cluster analysis and hierarchical clustering. Word importance classification presented the mismatches in a quantitative and diagram format. Cluster analysis and hierarchical clustering provided information on how to correct the detected gaps and mismatches. The study empirically corroborates that the method we put forward for analysing both sources (LOs and job ads) helps identify and assess the significance of gaps and mismatches in the approaches to knowledge and skills adopted by universities and employers. Consequently, the method can be helpful during the auditing process and while implementing market-oriented curriculum changes.

In today's digital world, higher education institutions collect and use more data than ever. However, institutional silos create barriers for stakeholders who need data for daily operations and strategy. This article presents a vision of a unified, collaborative future for data governance and actionable steps stakeholders can take.

By assessing student engagement with learning tasks along with students' understanding of subject matter before and during teaching, teachers are able to shift their teaching approaches through improvisational pedagogical reasoning in real time. However, if a teacher does not know how to respond to students' cues, their capacity to effectively adapt their teaching actions is reduced. This perspective resonates with the notion of pedagogical equilibrium. To date, studies of pedagogical equilibrium have predominantly focused on causes of disequilibrium, with scant discussion of typologies of pedagogical equilibria and mechanisms which can prompt teachers to transition from disequilibrium and equilibrium or vice versa. The purpose of this study is to conceptually discuss: (1) the transactional nature of teacher decision-making when it is based on understanding student actions and cognition; and, (2) typologies of pedagogical equilibria related to teachers' preferences for being responsive to student behaviour and understanding.

This article intends to empower and equip art educators to artistically address the functioning of facial detection algorithms through critical race theory (CRT). By highlighting how biometric data, a specific form of data that measures the physical qualities of individuals, is used in common social media facial detection algorithms like Snapchat, art students are encouraged to use principles of value and facial proportions to interact with and explore these algorithms in a material way. Examples of algorithms systematically perpetuating racism are shared to highlight the real-world significance of data and algorithms. Artistic responses to biometrics and artificial intelligence (AI) are provided to inspire student artistic research, along with teacher examples. Finally, the conclusion urges art educators to address the functioning of algorithms and their potential issues through the arts.

Cognitive information processing theory was born in response to a realisation the traditional method of individual, one hour counselling appointments prevented many college students from receiving needed support for their career decision making. Frustrated by this lack of access to career services, researchers, theorists and practitioners came together to create and provide the differentiated service delivery model. Thirty years and over 250 empirically-based articles later, CIP theory continues to synergistically inform research and practice across various venues, locations and populations. In this article, the authors, consisting of a team of CIP theorists, researchers and practitioners share practical examples, challenges, strategies to address those challenges, and recommendation on building a community of practice to address the praxis among these important elements.

To aid in the development of a globally competitive workforce, federal policymakers have expressed the priority of preparing students and adults with disabilities to succeed in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Yet, no research has examined the extent to which information-processing, literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills in technologically rich environments may associate with having a STEM degree for various disability populations. This study analyzed the United States nationally representative data from the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) to examine associations between adult skills and having a STEM degree for people with and without disabilities. No direct associations were found between adult skills and having a STEM degree for people with learning disabilities or for people without disabilities. These groups' information processing, literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills were not determining factors in STEM degree attainment. However, findings suggest a significant association between problem-solving skills and having a STEM degree for people with visual and/or hearing impairments. Policy implications are discussed.

Adopting an evolutionary approach to substantiate major characteristics of human cognitive architecture has been one of the major recent developments in cognitive load theory. According to this approach, human cognitive architecture is a natural information processing system which can be described by five general principles. This paper attempts to (1) identify the scope of applicability of these principles in natural information processing systems of different levels of complexity, (2) reconcile the coexistence of implicit (primary) and controlled (secondary) processes within the same human cognitive architecture, and (3) incorporate motivational factors into the evolutionary approach to human cognitive architecture. The paper suggests two principal modifications to the traditional formulation of the evolutionary approach. Firstly, natural information processing systems are viewed as dynamically evolving systems with new principles added with increasing levels of complexity of the systems. Secondly, a new (the explicit intention to learn) principle is added at the level of human cognition. This sixth principle is expected to address (1) the emergence of controlled mechanisms dealing with biologically secondary information as expressed by conscious processing in working memory and (2) the role of learner motivation in such processes from an evolutionary perspective. The paper concludes with discussion of theoretical and practical instructional implications of the proposed modifications.

This article discusses the issues of the basic processes underlying intelligence, considering both historical and contemporary perspectives. The attempt to elucidate basic processes has had, at best, mixed success. There are some problems with pinpointing the underlying basic processes of intelligence, both in theory and as tested, such as what constitutes a basic process, what constitutes intelligence, and whether the processes, basic or not, are the same across time and space (cultural contexts). Nevertheless, the search for basic processes has elucidated phenomena of intelligence that the field would have been hard-pressed to elucidate in any other way. Intelligence cannot be fully understood through any one conceptual or methodological approach. A comprehensive understanding of intelligence requires the converging operations of a variety of approaches to it.

A rapid increase of available information affects students' perception of any message and formation of priorities; the period of concentration on one subject is reduced; students prefer concise vivid visual images. Internet memes become a part of students' daily communication and broadcast today's cultural and information realities. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Internet memes integration while mastering philological disciplines (for example, English) by Ukrainian students. The authors experimented to check the methodology proposed within one program unit. We conducted the experiment in the 2020-2021 academic year and involved 68 students and 5 teachers of Dnipro Academy of Continuing Education, Donetsk State University of Internal Affairs and Mykhailo Tuhan-Baranovskyi Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade. The authors conducted pre- and post-experimental surveys and informal interviews to compare academic achievements and provided a system of tasks integrating memes. Implementing the experiment, we clarified the dominant way of students' perception and processing of information and revealed the expediency of integrating memes into teaching English. The authors determined the dynamics of the levels of students' motivation to learn English through Internet memes integration and established quantitative values of the levels using the method of mathematical statistics. The conclusions emphasize the need to improve teachers' pedagogical skills, developed critical and creative thinking to integrate memes into educational activities. The authors stress the relevance of the further detailed study of the educational potential of memes in teaching not only philological disciplines but also other subjects of the curriculum.

The goal of the current study was to investigate whether children's social information processing (SIP) predicts their conversations with peers, including both their remarks to peers and peers' remarks to them. When children (N = 156; 55% male; United States; Representation by Race: 60% African American, 18% Mixed race, 15% European American, 7% Other; Representation by Latino/a Ethnicity: 22% Latino/a, 78% Not Latino/a; M[subscript income] = $39,419) were 8 years old, we assessed their aggressive and prosocial SIP using the Social Information Processing Application (SIP-AP). When children were 9 years old, they participated in playgroups typically consisting of four same-sex unfamiliar children who interacted in a round-robin format. Each dyad completed a five-minute frustration task and a five-minute planning task. Observers coded children's verbalizations into six prosocial categories (Suggest, Agree, Solicit Input, Ask, Encourage, State Personal) and four antisocial categories (Command, Disagree, Discourage, Aggress). Children with higher aggressive SIP made more antisocial and fewer prosocial statements, whereas children with higher prosocial SIP made more prosocial and fewer antisocial statements. Furthermore, children with higher aggressive SIP elicited more antisocial and fewer prosocial statements from peers, whereas children with higher prosocial SIP elicited more prosocial and fewer antisocial statements from peers. Children's antisocial and prosocial remarks mediated relations between their aggressive SIP and peers' subsequent antisocial and prosocial remarks. Findings are discussed in terms of: (a) the use of SIP to predict more subtle social behaviors in children's social interaction, and (b) cycles of social interactions that maintain and reinforce children's SIP patterns.

The bombardment of information on students in higher education has created a need for not only information processing skills but improved communicative competence and interpersonal relationship skills. In an attempt to address this, we have implemented book clubs in our undergraduate teacher education courses. In these book clubs, we facilitate students in both critique and analysis of perspectives at difference with one another as well as the process of communicating on a professional level. The results have been students who feel more confident in evaluating literature and hosting conversations with critical elements.

Multimedia information fusion technology is currently a popular technology for data processing. The advanced productivity it brings is dozens of times that of traditional data information processing. The collected and processed information is not only efficient and accurate, but also has strong scalability. With the continuous development of college education in China, the problem of the construction of intelligent library in colleges and universities has gradually surfaced. The establishment of a university intelligent library is a process of integration and common progress between disciplines. This article starts from the current situation of university libraries, studies and analyzes intelligent libraries at home and abroad, and finally combines the existing multimedia information fusion technology to analyze the theoretical level of information flow as an important idea of the current university intelligent library construction.

Many research agencies are now requiring that data collected as part of funded projects be shared. However, the practice of data sharing in education sciences has lagged these funder requirements. We assert that this is likely because researchers generally have not been made aware of these requirements and of the benefits of data sharing. Furthermore, data sharing is usually not a part of formal training, so many researchers may be unaware of how to properly share their data. Finally, the research culture in education science is often filled with concerns regarding the sharing of data. In this article, we address each of these areas, discussing the wide range of benefits of data sharing, the many ways by which data can be shared; provide a step by step guide to start sharing data; and respond to common concerns.

Reading strategies and cognitive styles have been the objective of many researchers. However, the relation between these two concepts remains unclear. This paper is focusing on three goals. Firstly, we verify the reliability of the eye-tracking indicators of risky and conservative reading style. Secondly, we aim to explore an additional eye-tracking pattern that may reflect the reading style on the global level. Thirdly, we explore the relationship between reading style and the holistic/analytic cognitive style. The study is based on a combination of Compound Figure Test (CFT) as a main tool for analyzing cognitive style and eye-tracking study consisting of several text stimuli related to verify reading style patterns. Results showed stability across the reading tasks, which validates for the usefulness and reliability of original Rayner's as well as the new additional eye-tracking metrics. The stability of the eye-tracking metrics allows us to treat them as a behavioral profile in information processing that may be viewed as a stable personality trait known as reading style. However, the eye-tracking results and the CFT global preference score did not show a detectably close relation between cognitive style and reading style. In conclusion, we also discuss the possibility of applying these eye-tracking patterns to foreign language material design.

Background: A priori assumptions about specific behavior in test items can be used to process log data in a rule-based fashion to identify the behavior of interest. In this study, we demonstrate such a top-down approach and created a process indicator to represent what type of information processing (flimsy, breadth-first, satisficing, sampling, laborious) adults exhibit when searching online for information. We examined how often the predefined patterns occurred for a particular task, how consistently they occurred within individuals, and whether they explained task success beyond individual background variables (age, educational attainment, gender) and information processing skills (reading and evaluation skills). Methods: We analyzed the result and log file data of ten countries that participated in the "Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies" (PIAAC). The information processing behaviors were derived for two items that simulated a web search environment. Their explanatory value for task success was investigated with generalized linear mixed models. Results: The results showed item-specific differences in how frequently specific information processing patterns occurred, with a tendency of individuals not to settle on a single behavior across items. The patterns explained task success beyond reading and evaluation skills, with differences across items as to which patterns were most effective for solving a task correctly. The patterns even partially explained age-related differences. Conclusions: Rule-based process indicators have their strengths and weaknesses. Although dependent on the clarity and precision of a predefined rule, they allow for a targeted examination of behaviors of interest and can potentially support educational intervention during a test session. Concerning adults' digital competencies, our study suggests that the effective use of online information is not inherently based on demographic factors but mediated by central skills of lifelong learning and information processing strategies.

Learning with hypertexts require learners to navigate in a non-linear environment and build a coherent representation of the informational content. The expansion of digital technologies and hypertext use in higher education has emphasized the need to examine how technological tools may foster quality learning. This study examined how three types of interactive content organizers (COs) used to represent the main concepts and to navigate in the content pages can impact information processing and learning outcome. The COs designed for the experiment varied in terms of conceptual and navigation support they provide and format. Ninety-three undergraduates used a list of concepts that only provided conceptual support, a summary or a concept map that provided both conceptual and navigation support either with text or graphic format. Results showed that highly coherent COs such as summaries or concept maps improved navigation coherence. However, the summary focused the attention of learners and decreased hypertext exploration (i.e. longer time on the CO and fewer content pages accessed). Longer reading times of the summary also increased text-based outcome, whereas longer processing of the concept map improved inference-based outcome. Implications for the design of interactive COs used to access, navigate and a learn with hypertexts are discussed.

It has been controversial whether the matching of learning styles with teaching environment has improved the teaching effects. This paper constructs matching modes by choosing Sternberg's three learning styles (liberal leaning, internal scope and global level) and adopts curriculum comprehensiveness and instructing modes. The research, based on data of off-line teaching collected from 456 college students in China, finds that: (1) direct effect: three learning styles have significant effects on eight dimensions of learners' cognitive information processing (CIP); (2) matching effect: the alignment of learners' liberal leaning and instructing modes has a direct impact on the eight dimensions of learners' CIP; the alignment of learners' global level and curriculum characteristics has a direct impact on the 7 dimensions; the alignment of learners' internal scope and instructing modes have no significant direct impact on the 7 dimensions; and (3) moderating effect of the mandatory use of IT (MUIT): MUIT may restrain or strengthen effects of some matching modes on some dimensions of CIP. The key conclusion is that whether personalized instructing based on learners' characteristics can improve teaching results requires the selection of appropriate matching modes. Not all matching modes have matching effects, and matching effect is influenced by MUIT.

The purpose of this study was to better understand how middle school students consider the source of information when processing videos with conflicting information. To this end, we exposed a sample of seventh-graders to a series of videos in which two interviewees expressed divergent positions on a socioscientific issue ('Will organic farming be able to feed the entire world population by 2050?'). After viewing the videos, students were asked to recall the sources they had seen and indicate how far they had perceived the sources to be credible and convincing. Results showed that students paid close attention to the information given about the sources during viewing and rated their credibility accordingly. However, only a minority of students rated the expert sources as the most convincing after viewing the videos, while students' beliefs on the topic contributed to source evaluation. These results suggest that although middle school students may pay attention to the identity of sources when viewing a video, they are unlikely to use this information to assess the reliability of the message. [Spanish translation by Mercè Rius.]

There are perceived economic and security concerns related to immigration and refugees among the population in many countries and the media sometimes convey an image of immigration and refugees as a social problem. It is therefore necessary to analyse that influence, especially in those who will have a direct relationship with the displaced, such as teachers. This study searched to determine the extent to which the frequency of use of different media influence attitudes towards refugees in 205 pre-service teachers, and to test whether attitudes related to cognitive factors influence affective attitudes towards refugees. A questionnaire has been used to measure the attitudes towards refugees in four dimensions: affective, economic labour, social, and immigration policy. The statistics used were descriptive analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of simple and multiple linear regressions. The results suggest that cognitive factors such as attitudes towards economic labour, social, and immigration policy predict affective attitudes towards refugees. Regarding the use of media as a source of information about the refugee situation, the study indicates a clear influence of the media on attitudes in pre-service teachers, with more positive attitudes among those who did not use or made little use of the media.

When the Learning Sciences emerged in 1991, there was an ethos of studying learning in humans and machines in conjunction with one another. This ethos reflected three decades of prior work on the interdisciplinary study of learning; however, in the three decades since the emergence of the Learning Sciences, it seems to have largely disappeared. I begin by describing the ethos that was prevalent in 1991 using quotations from the inaugural editorial of the "Journal of the Learning Sciences." I then describe how this ethos was prevalent decades before the Learning Sciences in four distinct approaches to cognitive science research, which I call the "Four C's"--cognitivism, constructivism, cybernetics, and connectionism. I suggest three reasons why the Learning Sciences moved away from the use of artificial intelligence as a central tool for thinking about learning, noting that these reasons do not suggest a fundamental incompatibility between the two. I end by discussing how Learning Scientists might once again embrace artificial intelligence and computational modeling and use them as tools for gaining insight into the constructivist, situated, and socio-cultural nature of learning.

Background: Traditionally, Physical Education (PE) has adopted a multiskills approach, where children generally engage in decontextualised practice of sport techniques to develop specific movement skills and facilitate sports participation. This approach has been critiqued for having a weak conceptual and philosophical justification, and a lack of empirical proof of its educational value. The SAMPLE-PE research project set out to challenge this by creating two PE curricula distinguished by contrasting theories of motor learning: information processing theory and ecological dynamics. While both approaches have shown promise in enhancing children's movement skills, to date, there has been little consideration of their impact on the motivational climate of primary PE lessons. This study explored to what extent traditional PE, ecological dynamics, and information processing theorybased approaches create empowering and disempowering motivational climates when viewed through a self-determination and achievement goal theory lens. Method: Forty-four PE lessons were video recorded and coded by two trained researchers using the Multidimensional Motivational Climate Observation System. ANOVA, MANOVA and Bonferroni post-hoc tests were run to explore differences in data on motivational climate under the three different pedagogical approaches. Results: The group taught with concepts from ecological dynamics (referred to as Ecological) displayed a significantly lower disempowering motivational climate in comparison to the group taught with a basis in information processing theory (referred to as IPT) and the traditional PE groups. The ecological group revealed significantly more autonomy support than the traditional PE and the IPT group. The IPT group methods provided significantly more structure than traditional PE and the ecological group. Conclusion: The findings of this study have shown how the approach taken in delivering PE in primary schools may differentially affect motivational climates. Results imply that underpinning PE with theories of motor learning provides differing, viable and beneficial alternatives to create positive learning environments, compared to traditional PE practices.

The purpose of the present research is to develop a visual-spatial ability test (VSAT) for primary school children. Visual-spatial abilities allow processing of information about an object in terms of shape, colour, texture, perspective, and rotation. The visual-spatial test includes items-tasks for the participants to process information about texture, colour, shape and perspective. A total of 196 primary school children participated in the research. The data were analysed through Rasch analysis and item-response theory. Findings proved that VSAT yields reliable and valid results for assessing the visual-spatial ability of primary school children.

Why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we learn things is the scope of the Cognitive Learning Theories. When we use the word "learning", we usually mean "to think using the brain". Therefore, the basic concept of learning is the main viewpoint in the Cognitive Learning Theories as it refers to mental processes that eventually bring about learning in an individual. The objective of this study is to analyse and present the approaches to learning in relation with the processes in brain. In this context, the difference between the behaviouristic approach and cognitive approach is mentioned and the main concepts, models and steps of brain both in terms of Latent Learning Theory, Gestalt Theory and Information Processing Theory are presented descriptively considering the similarities with and contribution to each other. Thus, the main emphasis of this study is on the Latent Learning Theory, Gestalt Theory and Information Processing Theory as the pillars of cognitive learning theories. Keywords: Learning, Cognitive learning, Latent learning, Information processing.

The objective of this study was the characterization of the learning strategies of higher education students of a university in Lima. To achieve this purpose, the focus is qualitative, which allows us to interpret the same practice of the students. The methodology of this research, included direct observation and in-depth interviewing, and was aimed at understanding the reasons for practice in certain strategies. The conclusion of the research is that the metacognitive strategies, the processing of information and the control of the context become the fundamental principles at the moment of learning by students.

The main objective of this paper is the conceptual design of a computational AI system that emulates human creativity. To do this, extensive research has been done on recent discoveries about the neural bases of human creativity. As a result, eleven neurocognitive factors have been identified on which the tremendous creative capacity of the human brain is based. The integration of these factors has made it possible to create a neurocognitive model of human creativity. The analysis of each of creative neurocognitive structures separately suggests certain characteristics that must be present in the structure of a creative computational system to emulate brain creativity. Properly integrating these characteristics, a general architecture for a creative multi-agent system has been proposed, as well as the guidelines for the correct representation of knowledge. Based on this general architecture a creative computational system can be implemented for a specific field of knowledge, or general purpose.

In this article, a methodology for utilizing eight Thinking Maps that are linked to a cognitive taxonomy will be explored. Firstly, the various taxonomies focusing on cognitive processes will be elaborated upon, namely Bloom's Taxonomy as well as Barret's Taxonomy that is used in the education system. Following this, the article will explore the questioning strategy that links questions to either taxonomy and how this strategy is currently employed in classrooms worldwide. A section then elucidates the eight Thinking Maps and what types of thought processes are associated with each map. A methodology will be discussed that links the eight Thinking Maps to verbs that are all associated with the previously mentioned taxonomies. Finally, an adaptive systematic methodology will be elaborated upon, linking to the information processing theory.

Educators have a critical stake in supporting the development of interest--as the presence of interest benefits sustained engagement and learning. Neuroscientific research has shown that interest is distinct from, but overlapping with, self-related information processing, the personally relevant connections that a learner makes to content (e.g., mathematics). We propose that consideration of self-related information processing is critical for encouraging interest development in at least two ways. First, support for learners to make self-related connections to content may provide a basis for the triggering of their interest. Triggered interest encourages individuals to search for more information, and to persevere in understanding material that otherwise might feel meaningless. Second, for learners who already have an initial interest in the content, self-related connections can further promote the deepening of interest through sustained engagement and information search. Background regarding both interest and self-related information processing is provided, and implications for practice are suggested.

The relevance of the research is due to the need of taking into account the learners' cognitive characteristics in the educational process. Knowing the personal qualities of people is also important when choosing an occupation or employment. This is why the paper is aimed at describing the opportunities of the newest Web and mobile applications for studies and self-diagnostics of users based on the cloud technology of diagnosing the human individual and cognitive abilities. The leading approach to studying this problem is the projective and recursive strategy that allows viewing the problem of expert statistics accumulation and user diagnostic results analysis in an integrated way. The paper presents the developments in problem-solving computer environments for diagnosing human individual and integrated abilities. Grounds are given for diagnostics of the main human cognitive abilities: the scope of memory and attention; information processing, reading, typing speeds and others. The website for developing the new diagnostics and conducting studies can be accessed by everyone with any browser via http://selftest.ufoproger.ru. The website has been developed by the university students under the guidance of professor N.I. Pak. The materials of the paper are of practical value for teachers designing the educational process up to the learners' individual characteristics.

In two experimental and exploratory studies, we wanted to test the differentiated effects on preschoolers with externalizing behavior (EB) of two short-term social information processing (SIP) and Theory of Mind (ToM) training sessions, in comparison with typically developing (TD) preschoolers or with preschoolers with EB whom didn't receive training. Firstly, nineteen preschoolers presenting a high level of EB problems took part in a pre-test session involving direct cognitive and socio-cognitive measures (assessing the understanding of emotions, beliefs and social problem-solving). They were then allocated at random to two experimental groups (ToM or SIP training) and compared to nineteen TD preschoolers who followed the same procedure. Four experimental groups, EB-ToM group (n = 9), TD-ToM group (n = 9), EB-SIP group (n = 10), TD SIP-group (n = 10), received short training sessions, which were given by group of three children. All children took part in a post-test session. Secondly, EB-ToM group (n=9) and EB-SIP group (n = 10) was compared to a control group of preschoolers with EB problems (n = 9). These preschoolers took part in pre-test and post-test sessions. Firstly, we tested whether the effectiveness of the training was specific to children with EB compared to TD children. Although improvement was obtained in typically developing children, larger improvements were found in the population with EB. Secondly, we compared the potential transfer of learning between the two types of experimental training in children with EB problems. Results showed some improvement in ToM and in SIP for both experimental groups. These studies provide some guidelines for training in social cognition aimed at preschoolers who are at risk of or have developed EB disorders

The study aimed to know how does mind-map software assess the representation of learners' knowledge and how brain tester software assess the performance of left, right, auditory, and visual lobes of the brain to represent information. It also aimed to study the differential effectiveness of audio, visual, and audio-visual information to represent knowledge. Mind map tool used to know the students' knowledge representation in science, and for that purpose, different audio, visual, and audio-visual tools used to know how learners process cognitive information; those were experienced in the study. There was no hypothesis to draw inferences but three working hypotheses or the research questions framed to find out the result. Every individual has an independent information processor in left, right, auditory, and visual lobe of brain to represent information. It was also resulted that audio-visual information was more effective to process and represent knowledge than audio and visual information.

As social media is widely adopted in collaborative learning, which places teams in a virtual environment, it is critical for teams to identify and leverage the knowledge of their members. Yet little is known about how social media influences teams to coordinate their knowledge and collaborate effectively. In this research, we explore the roles of two kinds of social media activity--information processing and social connection in teamwork--by applying communication and transactive memory systems (TMSs) as the mechanisms of explicit and implicit coordination respectively. We test this model using partial least squares (PLS) method by treating team as the unit of analysis. Drawing on the data from a study that involves 40 teams of graduate students performing a complex research report over eight weeks, we find that both TMSs and communication can significantly improve teamwork outcomes, and communication can help teams to better coordinate implicitly. With regard to social media activities, the results reveal that both information processing and social connection can enhance the level of TMSs; however, only social connection is positively related to communication. Unfortunately, information processing cannot significantly strengthen communication quality. The possible reasons are discussed and some theoretical and practical implications are also put forward.

The standards of educational information exchange are still firmly rooted in a Newtonian paradigm that emphasizes strict rules of information exchange. With the explosion of information since World War II, and especially its accessibility through the mechanism of the internet, this paradigm has become a barrier to effective exchanges of information at all levels. Vannevar Bush recognized this problem as early as 1945 and provided a roadmap to addressing it in his famous "As We May Think." Douglas Engelbart and Theodore Holmes Nelson applied Bush's vision to technology but we have never fully realized its potential in part due to our Newtonian information paradigm. This article argues that what Bush, Engelbart, and Nelson proposed is essentially an Einsteinian (relativistic) notion of information flows with tools specifically designed to facilitate the augmentation of human knowledge. It further posits what such a system of knowledge exchange might look like and how we might begin to build it.

Non-Factoid Question Answering (QA) is the next generation of textual QA systems, which gives passage level summaries for a natural language query, posted by the user. The main issue lies in the appropriateness of the generated summary. This paper proposes a framework for non-factoid QA system, which has three main components: (1) a deep neural network classifier, which produces sentence vector considering word correlation and context; (2) zero shot classifier that uses a multi-channel Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), to extract knowledge from multiple sources in the knowledge accumulator. This output acts as a knowledge enhancer that strengthens the passage level summary; and (3) summary generator that uses Maximal Marginal Relevance (MMR) algorithm, which computes similarity among the query related answer and the sentences from zero shot classifier. This model is applied on the datasets WikiPassageQA and ANTIQUE. The experimental analysis shows that this model gives comparatively better results for WikiPassageQA dataset.

Reasoning skills are needed in the future work life. As such, it is important that reasoning skills be assessed in higher education, both in the selection phase and during education. This study aims to describe the instruments that are used to assess reasoning skills in higher education. The ultimate goal is to provide information upon which student selection methods may be developed. A computerised search was performed among nine databases, and seventeen articles were included. As a result, seven generic instruments that measure reasoning skills were identified. None of the included studies reported an assessment of reasoning skills during the student selection phase. The content of the reasoning skills' instruments focused on four categories: information processing, analysing, drawing conclusions and argumentation. None of the seven instruments addressed all four categories identified, although a few addressed three categories. To conclude, a comprehensive assessment of reasoning skills including the four identified categories is recommended in the higher education context. Further research is needed to assess the use of reasoning skills and relevant instruments for high stake purposes.