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An emerging body of studies demonstrates that practicing retrieval of studied information, by comparison with restudying or no treatment, can facilitate subsequent learning and retrieval of new information, a phenomenon termed the forward testing effect (FTE) or test-potentiated new learning. Several theoretical explanations have been proposed to account for the FTE. A release-from-PI theory proposes that interpolated testing induces context changes and enhances event segregation, which in turn protect new learning from proactive interference (PI). A strategy-change view hypothesizes that prior tests teach learners to adopt more effective/elaborative learning and retrieval strategies in subsequent study and test phases. Finally, a reset-of-encoding account proposes that interim testing on studied information reduces memory load, resets the subsequent encoding process, and enhances encoding of new information. The current study recruited a large sample (over 1,000 participants) and employed a multilist learning task and mediation analyses to test these theories. The results suggest that prior list intrusions (an index of PI) significantly mediated the FTE, supporting the release-from-PI theory. In addition, interim testing enhanced strategic processing of temporal information during new learning (reflected by increased clustering), and temporal clustering significantly mediated the FTE, supporting a role for strategy-change in the FTE. Lastly, a variety of indices were constructed to represent the benefit of reset-of-encoding, but none of them provided evidence supporting the reset-of-encoding view. The results shed new light on the complex mechanisms underlying the forward benefits of testing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Despite the well-documented negative effects of anxiety on task-switching (switch costs), few studies have directly tested major theoretical assumptions about (a) the specific processing component of task-switching that is impaired by anxiety, (b) anxious individuals' strategies during task-switching, and (c) the mediating role of mind wandering in the relation between anxiety and task-switching. We addressed these issues using a stochastic diffusion model analysis and novel thought-probe technique in the task-switching paradigm. Our results suggest that the locus of impaired switch costs under state anxiety lies in the efficiency of task-set reconfiguration and not in proactive interference processing. Moreover, state anxiety was associated with impaired mixing costs, which are another crucial index of task-switching. We found only partial evidence for anxious individuals' proneness to compensatory strategies during task-switching. However, no evidence was found for a mediating role of task-unrelated thoughts and a moderating role of working memory in the relation between anxiety and task-switching. Our findings elucidate theoretical assumptions underlying anxiety and cognitive functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

We show that the intention to remember information substantially improves recall of that information when maintained in working memory (WM), whereas it does not have the same effect on maintenance in episodic long-term memory (LTM). In eight experiments, participants processed lists of words according to a semantic orienting task in three instruction conditions: to remember, to forget, or an incidental-memory baseline with no instruction. The first two experiments showed better memory for intentional remembering compared to incidental memory for a typical test of WM, but not for a typical test of episodic LTM. The subsequent six experiments determined which of three variables distinguishing typical WM and episodic-LTM tests-delay of test, list length, and proactive interference-are responsible for this difference. The intention to remember improved free-recall performance for short lists (close to the capacity limit of WM), most strongly when tested immediately, and only in the presence of proactive interference. This result supports a functional distinction between WM and episodic LTM: Whereas episodic LTM keeps a nonselective record of experiences for future use, WM holds selectively only the information relevant for the current goal. In addition, we found a beneficial effect of intentional remembering on memory for the list position of words, which was obtained for longer lists and regardless of the delay of testing, probably reflecting episodic LTM. The instruction to forget had no effect compared to the incidental baseline, questioning the assumption of a targeted forgetting process on memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Our ability to briefly retain information is often limited. Proactive Interference (PI) might contribute to these limitations (e.g., when items in recognition tests are difficult to reject after having appeared recently). In visual Working Memory (WM), spatial information might protect WM against PI, especially if encoding items together with their spatial locations makes item-location combinations less confusable than simple items without a spatial component. Here, I ask (1) if PI is observed for spatially distributed items, (2) if it arises among simple items or among item-location combinations, and (3) if spatial information affects PI at all. I show that, contrary to views that spatial information protects against PI, PI is reliably observed for spatially distributed items except when it is weak. PI mostly reflects items that appear recently or frequently as memory items, while occurrences as test items play a smaller role, presumably because their temporal context is easier to encode. Through mathematical modeling, I then show that interference occurs among simple items rather than item-location combinations. Finally, to understand the effects of spatial information, I separate the effects of (a) the presence and (b) the predictiveness of spatial information on memory and its susceptibility to PI. Memory is impaired when items are spatially distributed, but, depending on the analysis, unaffected by the predictiveness of spatial information. In contrast, the susceptibility to PI is unaffected by either manipulation. Visual memory is thus impaired by PI for spatially distributed items due to interference from recent memory items (rather than test items or item-location combinations).

Cognitive aging negatively impacts language comprehension performance. . However, there is evidence that older adults skillfully use linguistic context and their crystallized world knowledge to offset age-related changes that negatively impact comprehension. Two visual-world paradigm experiments examined how aging changes verb-argument prediction, a comprehension process that relies on world knowledge but has rarely been examined in the cognitive-aging literature. Older adults did not differ from younger adults in their activation of an upcoming likely verb argument, particularly when cued by a semantically-rich agent+verb combination (Experiment 1). However, older adults showed elevated activation of previously-mentioned agents (Experiment 1) and of unlikely but verb-congruent referents (Experiment 2). This is novel evidence that older adults exploit semantic context and world knowledge during comprehension to successfully activate upcoming referents. However, older adults also show elevated activation of irrelevant information, consistent with previous findings demonstrating that older adults may experience greater proactive interference and competition from task-irrelevant information.

For over a century, stability of spatial context across related episodes has been considered a source of memory interference, impairing memory retrieval. However, contemporary memory integration theory generates a diametrically opposite prediction. Here, we aimed to resolve this discrepancy by manipulating local context similarity across temporally disparate but related episodes, and testing the direction and underlying mechanisms of memory change. A series of experiments show that contextual stability produces memory integration and marked reciprocal strengthening. Variable context, conversely, seemed to result in competition such that new memories become enhanced at the expense of original memories. Interestingly, these patterns were virtually inverted in an additional experiment where context was reinstated during recall. These observations (i) identify contextual similarity across original and new memories as an important determinant in the volatility of memory, (ii) present a challenge to classic and modern theories on episodic memory change, and (iii) indicate that sensitivity of context-induced memory changes to retrieval conditions may reconcile paradoxical predictions of interference and integration theory.

Remapping refers to a decorrelation of hippocampal representations of similar spatial environments. While it has been speculated that remapping may contribute to the resolution of episodic memory interference in humans, direct evidence is surprisingly limited. We tested this idea using high-resolution, pattern-based fMRI analyses. Here we show that activity patterns in human CA3/dentate gyrus exhibit an abrupt, temporally-specific decorrelation of highly similar memory representations that is precisely coupled with behavioral expressions of successful learning. The magnitude of this learning-related decorrelation was predicted by the amount of pattern overlap during initial stages of learning, with greater initial overlap leading to stronger decorrelation. Finally, we show that remapped activity patterns carry relatively more information about learned episodic associations compared to competing associations, further validating the learning-related significance of remapping. Collectively, these findings establish a critical link between hippocampal remapping and episodic memory interference and provide insight into why remapping occurs., When two memories are similar, their encoding and retrieval can be disrupted by each other. Here the authors show that memory interference is resolved through abrupt remapping of activity patterns in the human hippocampal CA3 and dentate gyrus.

Modifying established motor skills is a challenging endeavor due to proactive interference from undesired old to desired new actions, calling for high levels of cognitive control. Motor restrictions may facilitate the modification of motor skills by rendering undesired responses physically impossible, thus reducing demands to response inhibition. Here we studied behavioral and EEG effects of rule changes to typing in skilled touch-typists. The respective rule change—typing without using the left index finger—was either implemented per instruction only or with an additional motor restriction. In both groups, the rule change elicited delays and more errors in typing, indicating the occurrence of proactive interference. While stimulus-locked ERPs did not exhibit prominent effects of rule change or group, response-locked ERPs revealed that the time courses of preparatory brain activity preceding typing responses depended on the presence of motor restriction. Although further research is necessary to corroborate our findings, they indicate a novel brain correlate that represents changes in inhibitory response preparation induced by short-term motor restrictions. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00221-021-06190-w.

This study addresses a poorly understood but important question concerning the cognition of deception: How much more is there to lying than to responding incorrectly, the latter capturing how researchers have occasionally operationalized deception? A recent social-cognitive account of lying - Activation-Decision-Construction-Action Theory (ADCAT) - asserts a qualitative difference between the two - for instance, that deception involves Theory of Mind inferences and more proactive interference. To test these notions within-subjects, participants answered closed-ended and open-ended questions probing general truths honestly, deceptively, or with intentional errors. Response time and noncompliance with instructions were the dependent measures. Deceptive responding generally elicited the longest response times and the lowest instruction compliance, followed by intentional erring, supporting the theory. Although not the primary focus, response inhibition due to implausible deception was demonstrated for the first time.

The present research explores decision making in multitasking, investigating how people make optimal decisions between tasks. Empirical evidence suggests that difficulties in task performance (i.e., response conflict within a task) can bias decision making. Here we investigate whether also conflict between task representations can tune choices away from conflict-associated tasks. Using a combined forced/free-choice task-switching design, we tested whether task conflict that arises because of proactive interference of previously activated tasks biases task choice. We compared free-choice decisions between 3 tasks after forced-choice sequences that instigated either high task conflict (task sequences of type ABA, in which persisting inhibition needs to be overcome because one switches back to a just-abandoned task) or low task conflict (task sequences of type CBA). Results of 2 experiments (N = 16; N = 32, preregistered) showed that participants were more likely to switch away from the previously performed task after high than after low task conflict. Furthermore, participants preferably selected the task that suffered least from task conflict and/or proactive interference. In addition, a third experiment (N = 32) confirmed that this bias in task selection could not be explained in terms of randomness heuristics. These results suggest a close link between decision making and performance in multitasking. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Background: The objective of this study was to evaluate the association between habitual physical activity engagement on memory interference. The present analysis used cross-sectional data from the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study (n=1,241; mean age= 57.2; 72.1% female). Methods: Physical activity was evaluated via self-report. Memory interference was evaluated using a word-list paradigm. The memory task included learning a list of 16 words (List A; 5 trials), followed by a distractor list (List B), and then an immediate recall of List A. Proactive interference occurs when preceding stimuli (e.g., Trial 1 and Trial 5 of List A) interferes with performance on a subsequent stimuli (List B). Retroactive interference occurs when subsequent stimuli (List B) interferes with the recall of previously encoded stimuli (Trial 5). Results: For proactive interference, there was no association between physical activity and the difference between performance on List B and Trial 1 of List A (β=0.00001; P=0.96). Similarly, for retroactive interference, there was no association between physical activity and the difference between the short delay recall and Trial 5 of List A (β=0.0002; P=0.50). Conclusion: The present study did not observe an association between habitual physical activity on attenuating memory interference.

We tested whether similarity between events triggers adaptive biases in how those events are remembered. We generated pairs of competing objects that were identical except in color and varied the degree of color similarity for the competing objects. Subjects ( N = 123 across four experiments) repeatedly studied and were tested on associations between each of these objects and corresponding faces. As expected, high color similarity between competing objects created memory interference for object–face associations. Strikingly, high color similarity also resulted in a systematic bias in how the objects themselves were remembered: Competing objects with highly similar colors were remembered as being further apart (in color space) than they actually were. This repulsion of color memories increased with learning and served a clear adaptive purpose: Greater repulsion was associated with lower associative-memory interference. These findings reveal that similarity between events triggers adaptive-memory distortions that minimize interference.

When people experience everyday activities, their comprehension can be shaped by expectations that derive from similar recent experiences, which can affect the encoding of a new experience into memory. When a new experience includes changes—such as a driving route being blocked by construction—this can lead to interference in subsequent memory. One potential mechanism of effective encoding of event changes is the retrieval of related features from previous events. Another such mechanism is the generation of a prediction error when a predicted feature is contradicted. In two experiments, we tested for effects of these two mechanisms on memory for changed features in movies of everyday activities. Participants viewed movies of an actor performing everyday activities across two fictitious days. Some event features changed across the days, and some features violated viewers’ predictions. Retrieval of previous event features while viewing the second movie was associated with better subsequent memory, providing evidence for the retrieval mechanism. Contrary to our hypotheses, there was no support for the error mechanism: Prediction error was not associated with better memory when it was observed correlationally (Experiment 1) or directly manipulated (Experiment 2). These results support a key role for episodic retrieval in the encoding of new events. They also indicate boundary conditions on the role of prediction errors in driving new learning. Both findings have clear implications for theories of event memory.

Same/different abstract-concept learning experiments were conducted with two primate species and three avian species by progressively increasing the size of the training stimulus set of distinctly different pictures from eight to 1,024 pictures. These same/different learning experiments were trained with two pictures presented simultaneously. Transfer tests of same and different learning employed interspersed trials of novel pictures to assess the level of correct performance on the very first time of subjects had seen those pictures. All of the species eventually performed these tests with high accuracy, contradicting the long-accepted notion that nonhuman animals are unable to learn the concept of same/different. Capuchin and rhesus monkeys learned the concept more readily than did pigeons. Clark's nutcrackers and black-billed magpies learned as readily as monkeys, and even showed a slight advantage with the smallest training stimulus sets. Those tests of same/different learning were followed by delay procedures, such that a delay was introduced after the subjects responded to the sample picture and before the test picture. In the sequential same/different task, accuracy was shown to diminish when the stimulus on a previous trial matched the test picture previously shown on a different trial. This effect is known as proactive interference. The pigeons' proactive interference was greater at 10-s delays than 1-s delays, revealing time-based interference. By contrast, time delays had little or no effect on rhesus monkeys' proactive interference, suggesting that rhesus monkeys have better explicit memory of where and when they saw the potential interfering picture, revealing better event-based memory.

Similarity between memories is a primary cause of interference and forgetting. Exaggerating subtle differences between memories is therefore a potential mechanism for reducing interference. Here, we report a human fMRI study (n= 29, 19 female) that tested whether behavioral and neural expressions of memories are adaptively distorted to reduce interference. Participants learned and repeatedly retrieved object images, some of which were identical except for subtle color differences. Behavioral measures of color memory revealed exaggeration of differences between similar objects. Importantly, greater memory exaggeration was associated with lower memory interference. fMRI pattern analyses revealed that color information in parietal cortex was stronger during memory recall when color information was critical for discriminating competing memories. Moreover, greater representational distance between competing memories in parietal cortex predicted greater color memory exaggeration and lower memory interference. Together, these findings reveal that competition between memories induces adaptive, feature-specific distortions in parietal representations and corresponding behavioral expressions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENTSimilarity between memories is a primary cause of interference and forgetting. Here, we show that, when remembering highly similar objects, subtle differences in the features of these objects are exaggerated in memory to reduce interference. These memory distortions are reflected in, and predicted by, overlap of activity patterns in lateral parietal cortex. These findings provide unique insight into how memory interference is resolved and specifically implicate lateral parietal cortex in representing feature-specific memory distortions.

This paper concluded that parallel storage similar to the human brain must have the following characteristics: 1) The connection mode of its information storage is scattered and parallel. 2) The operating pattern of this system must be similar to that of the nervous system for memory, facilitation, and recall. Because of this similarity, we can “borrow” some concepts from neuroscience to describe Advanced intelligent basic programming the attributes of parallel storage systems. 3) The excitation mode of this system must be selective excitation. 4) Memory interference is one of the most important characteristics of parallel storage system. We can’t eliminate recall interference completely, but there are a number of steps can take to keep within the limits of our tolerance. 5) Memory interference requires only excitatory memory columns in the contact area. 6) The “memory excitation” mode of the parallel storage system for information must be the fuzzy “memory excitation”, which is inevitable of memory interference. Whereafter, This paper describes and discusses how and why to program on the theoretical basis of the first part. Includes an introduction to functions that enable memory, recall, stimulation, excitement. And the relationship between memory, memory, fuzzy excitement, excitement, reward and punishment, attention distribution and their significance in solving memory interference.

Continuous learning occurs naturally in human beings. However, Deep Learning methods suffer from a problem known as Catastrophic Forgetting (CF) that consists of a model drastically decreasing its performance on previously learned tasks when it is sequentially trained on new tasks. This situation, known as task interference, occurs when a network modifies relevant weight values as it learns a new task. In this work, we propose two main strategies to face the problem of task interference in convolutional neural networks. First, we use a sparse coding technique to adaptively allocate model capacity to different tasks avoiding interference between them. Specifically, we use a strategy based on group sparse regularization to specialize groups of parameters to learn each task. Afterward, by adding binary masks, we can freeze these groups of parameters, using the rest of the network to learn new tasks. Second, we use a meta learning technique to foster knowledge transfer among tasks, encouraging weight reusability instead of overwriting. Specifically, we use an optimization strategy based on episodic training to foster learning weights that are expected to be useful to solve future tasks. Together, these two strategies help us to avoid interference by preserving compatibility with previous and future weight values. Using this approach, we achieve state-of-the-art results on popular benchmarks used to test techniques to avoid CF. In particular, we conduct an ablation study to identify the contribution of each component of the proposed method, demonstrating its ability to avoid retroactive interference with previous tasks and to promote knowledge transfer to future tasks.

The ever-increasing need for computational power in embedded devices has led to the adoption heterogeneous SoCs combining a general purpose CPU with a data parallel accelerator. These systems rely on a shared main memory (DRAM), which makes them highly susceptible to memory interference. A promising software technique to counter such effects is the Predictable Execution Model (PREM). PREM ensures robustness to interference by separating programs into a sequence of memory and compute phases, and by enforcing a platform-level schedule where only a single processing subsystem is permitted to execute a memory phase at a time. This article demonstrates for the first time how PREM can be applied to heterogeneous SoCs, based on a synchronization technique for memory isolation between CPU and GPU plus a compiler to transform GPU kernels into PREM-compliant codes. For compute bound GPU workloads sharing the DRAM bandwidth 50/50 with the CPU we guarantee near-zero timing varibility at a performance loss of just 59 percent, which is one to two orders of magnitude smaller than the worst case we see for unmodified programs under memory interference.

Interference from related memories is generally considered one of the major causes of forgetting in human memory. The most prevalent form of interference may be proactive interference (PI), which refers to the finding that memory of more recently studied information can be impaired by the previous study of other information. PI is a fairly persistent effect, but numerous studies have shown that there can also be release from PI. PI buildup and release have primarily been studied using paired-associate learning, the Brown-Peterson task, or multiple-list learning. The review first introduces the three experimental tasks and, for each task, summarizes critical findings on PI buildup and release, from both behavioral and imaging work. Then, an overview is provided of suggested cognitive mechanisms operating on the encoding and retrieval stages as well as of neural correlates of these mechanisms. The results indicate that, in general, both encoding and retrieval processes contribute to PI buildup and release. Finally, empirical gaps in the current work are emphasized and suggestions for future studies are provided.

Pattern separation is a basic principle of neuronal coding that precludes memory interference in the hippocampus. Its existence is supported by numerous theoretical, computational, and experimental findings in different species. However, I argue that recent evidence from single-neuron recordings suggests that pattern separation may not be present in the human hippocampus and that memories are instead coded by the coactivation of invariant and context-independent engrams. This alternative model prompts a reassessment of the definition of episodic memory and its distinction from semantic memory. Furthermore, I propose that a lack of pattern separation in memory coding may have profound implications that could explain cognitive abilities that are uniquely developed in humans, such as our power of generalization and of creative and abstract thinking.

When encoding task-relevant information in working memory (WM), we can use prior knowledge to facilitate task performance. For instance, when memorizing a phone number, we can benefit from recognizing some parts as known chunks (e.g., 911) and focus on memorizing the novel parts. Prior knowledge from long-term memory (LTM), however, can also proactively interfere with WM contents. Here, we show that WM selectively recruits information from LTM only when it is helpful, not when it would interfere. We used variants of the Hebb paradigm in which WM is tested through immediate serial recall of lists. Some lists were repeated frequently across trials, so they were acquired in LTM, as reflected in increasing serial-recall performance across repetitions. We compared interference conditions in which that LTM knowledge could interfere with holding another list in WM to a neutral condition in which that knowledge could be neither beneficial nor harmful. In Experiments 1-3, lists in the interference conditions shared their items with the learned lists but not their order. We observed no proactive interference. In Experiments 4 and 5, the interference lists' first three items overlapped exactly with the learned lists, and only the remaining items had a new order. This made LTM knowledge partially beneficial and partially harmful. Participants could use LTM flexibly to improve performance for the first part of the list without experiencing interference on the second half. LTM-mediated learning of the first part even boosted memory for the unknown second part. We conclude that there is a flexible gate controlling the flow of information from LTM and WM so that LTM knowledge is recruited only when helpful. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Deficits in working memory (WM) have a role in maintaining posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, including intrusions, which are a hallmark of PTSD symptomatology. As intrusions are distressing and uncontrollable, it is important to investigate whether PTSD is associated with altered control of proactive interference in WM. Moreover, it is important to consider both verbal and visual WM, as previous research has demonstrated a visual versus verbal dissociation in PTSD. Although previous studies have explored proactive interference in visual and verbal stimuli using a recent probe task, the stimuli used thus far have been non-trauma-related. Therefore, we aimed to investigate proactive interference in PTSD using trauma-related verbal and visual stimuli. Road traffic accident (RTA) survivors with (n = 60) and without PTSD (n = 30) completed a recent probe task to assess proactive interference of visual and verbal trauma-related material. Participants with PTSD displayed significantly more proactive interference than trauma-exposed controls for visual, ηp 2 = .40, and verbal material, ηp 2 = .10, indicating that proactive interference is significantly impaired in PTSD. This demonstrates that further research is warranted and highlights the possibility of considering proactive interference of trauma-related stimuli in therapeutic approaches.

Attentional templates are stored representations of target features that guide visual search. While transiently active templates are as efficient as templates held in a sustained fashion, their simultaneous activation generates costs for the sustained template. Here, we investigated whether the quality of the memory representation determines these costs. Two possible target colors were cued before search display onset. In blocked conditions, the 2 colors either changed on every trial or were fixed throughout. In the mixed condition, 1 color was fixed, while the other varied from trial to trial. In Experiment 1, participants also reproduced 1 of the 2 target colors on a memory wheel after each search episode. The analysis of search performance replicated longer reaction times (RTs) to sustained than transient targets when template types were mixed, but no difference when they were blocked. Critically, analysis of memory judgments showed that random guesses for sustained templates increased from the blocked to the mixed condition, mirroring RTs. This suggests that newly activated transient templates retroactively interfered with already activated sustained templates, impairing their efficiency to guide attention and their stability in memory. Increasing the priority of sustained templates through maintenance constraints (Experiments 1 vs. 2) or retro-cueing (Experiment 3) reduced the associated costs. Finally, these costs were unaffected by different retention intervals (Experiment 4). We argue that retroactive interference affects the control of visual search and memory maintenance alike, but critically depends on the respective priority of representations in visual working memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Directed forgetting involves the targeted removal of memory representations. Previous research has indicated that directed forgetting in working memory reduces the amount of proactive interference ...

Retroactive interference refers to the impairing effects of new learning on earlier memories. The memory-for-change framework posits that being reminded of earlier information when learning new information can alleviate such retroactive interference and lead to facilitation. Such effects have been shown in younger adults, but the extent to which remindings play a role in retroactive effects of memory for older adults has not been examined. We address this issue here in two experiments using variants of an A-B, A-C paired associate paradigm. Participants studied two lists containing associated word pairs that: repeated across lists (A-B, A-B), included the same cue with a changed response in List 2 (A-B, A-C), or only appeared in List 1 (A-B), and then completed a cued-recall test of List 1. Participants reported List 1 reminding during List 2 study and recollection of reminding at test. Neither age group showed retroactive interference in overall List 1 recall, but younger adults showed poorer source monitoring by producing more List 2 intrusions onto List 1 recall than older adults. For both age groups, reminding was associated with retroactive facilitation for List 1 recall, whereas the absence of reminding was associated with retroactive interference. The benefits associated with reminding and recollection of reminding were greater for younger than older adults, partly because younger adults were able to recollect remindings more often than older adults. Together these results implicate a role for reminding in retroactive effects of memory that is more facilitative for younger than older adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Different studies indicate that emotions can interfere with the efficacy of inhibitory control. However, understanding this impact requires considering that inhibition is not a unitary construct. C...

Proactive interference occurs when consolidated memory traces inhibit new learning. This kind of interference decreases the efficiency of new learning and also causes memory errors. Exercise has been shown to facilitate some types of cognitive function; however, whether exercise reduces proactive interference to enhance learning efficiency is not well understood. Thus, this review discusses the effects of exercise on proactive memory interference and explores potential mechanisms, such as neurogenesis and neurochemical changes, mediating any effect.

No previous studies have evaluated the potential combined effects of acute exercise and acute hypoxia exposure on memory function, which was the purpose of this study. Twenty-five participants (Mage = 21.2 years) completed two laboratory visits in a counterbalanced order, involving 1) acute exercise (a 20-min bout of moderate-intensity exercise) and then 30 min of exposure to hypoxia (FIO2 = 0.12), and 2) exposure to hypoxia alone (FIO2 = 0.12) for 30 min. Following this, participants completed a cued-recall and memory interference task (AB/AC paradigm), assessing cued-recall memory (recall 1 and recall 2) and memory interference (proactive and retroactive interference). For cued-recall memory, we observed a significant main effect for condition, with Exercise + Hypoxia condition having significantly greater cued-recall performance than Hypoxia alone. Memory interference did not differ as a function of the experimental condition. This experiment demonstrates that engaging in an acute bout of exercise prior to acute hypoxia exposure had an additive effect in enhancing cued-recall memory performance.

Performance improvements during early human motor skill learning are suggested to be driven by short periods of rest during practice, at the scale of seconds. To reveal the unknown mechanisms behind these “micro-offline” gains, we leveraged the sampling power offered by online crowdsourcing (cumulative N over all experiments = 951). First, we replicated the original in-lab findings, demonstrating generalizability to subjects learning the task in their daily living environment (N = 389). Second, we show that offline improvements during rest are equivalent when significantly shortening practice period duration, thus confirming that they are not a result of recovery from performance fatigue (N = 118). Third, retroactive interference immediately after each practice period reduced the learning rate relative to interference after passage of time (N = 373), indicating stabilization of the motor memory at a microscale of several seconds. Finally, we show that random termination of practice periods did not impact offline gains, ruling out a contribution of predictive motor slowing (N = 71). Altogether, these results demonstrate that micro-offline gains indicate rapid, within-seconds consolidation accounting for early skill learning.

Proactive interference is when a previously performed task impairs performance on a current task. It is often associated with memory tasks and has not been reported to interfere with writing or drawing. We evaluated a left-handed man diagnosed with corticobasal syndrome who had a two-year history of progressive agraphia. On the sentence writing and clock drawing tasks, he initially wrote letters and numbers correctly but revealed an increase of movement errors as the tasks progressed. We propose the term "proactive interference apraxic agraphia" for this novel disorder. Prefrontal dysfunction may cause an impairment in disengaging from previously activated motor programs.

PurposeThe purposes of the study were (1) to examine whether directional dominance between co-existing athlete brands and sponsor brands exists; (2) to explore whether directional dominance influences consumers' memory interference; and (3) to test whether brand interference interacts with directional dominance among brands to influence consumer evaluation and behaviors under multiple endorsement and sponsorship portfolios.Design/methodology/approachThe research is a 3 (directional dominance: symmetric dominance vs. asymmetric dominance with existing vs. asymmetric dominance with newly endorsed brand) x 2 (brand memory interference: interference vs. no interference) between-subjects factorial design.FindingsThe results indicate that (1) directional dominance influenced consumer brand interference, and directional dominance interacted with brand interference on (2) brand evaluation and (3) purchase intention in multiple brand portfolios.Originality/valueConsidering that conventional single-sponsor sponsorship or single-endorser endorsement portfolios are increasingly rare, research on concurrent circumstances of multiple endorsers and multiple endorsed brands in multiple brand portfolios was necessary. By expanding and reconceptualizing the context of brand networks, this study provides empirical evidence on how the dominance and directionality between endorser and (existing and newly) endorsed brands—an athlete endorser's strong pre-existing association with an existing endorsed brand in particular—influenced consumer brand interference and the brand evaluation in multiple brand portfolios.