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Background: The aim of this study was to psychophysically evaluate the prevalence of smell and taste dysfunction two years after mildly symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection compared to that observed at one-year follow-up and while considering the background of chemosensory dysfunction in the no-COVID-19 population. Method: This is a prospective case-control study 93 patients with PCR-positive SARS-CoV-2 infection and 93 matched controls. Self-reported olfactory and gustatory dysfunction was assessed by Sino-nasal-Outcome-Test-22, item "Sense of smell or taste". Psychophysical ortho- and retronasal olfactory function and gustatory performance were estimated using the extended Sniffin' Sticks test battery, 20 powdered tasteless aromas, and taste strips test, respectively. Nasal trigeminal sensitivity was assessed by sniffing a 70% solution of acetic acid. Results: The two psychophysical assessments of chemosensory function took place after a median of 409 days (range: 366-461) and 765 days (range: 739-800) from the first SARS-CoV-2 positive swab, respectively. At two-year follow-up, cases exhibited a decrease in the prevalence of olfactory (27.9%% vs 42.0%; absolute difference, -14.0%; 95% CI, -21.8% to -2.6%; p = 0.016) and gustatory dysfunction (14.0% vs 25.8%; absolute difference, -11.8%; 95% CI, -24.2% to 0.6%; p = 0.098). Subjects with prior COVID-19 were more likely than controls to have an olfactory (27.9% vs 10.8 %; absolute difference, 17.2%; 95% CI, 5.2% to 28.8%) but not gustatory dysfunction (14.0% vs 9.7%; absolute difference, 4.3%; 95% CI, -5.8% to 14.4% p = 0.496) still two years after the infection. Overall, 3.2% of cases were still anosmic two-year after the infection. Conclusions: While a proportion of subjects recovered from long-lasting smell/taste dysfunction more than one year after COVID-19, cases still exhibited a significant excess of olfactory dysfunction two years after SARS-CoV-2 infection when compared to matched controls.

The perception of body and social odours (SOP) is crucial for interpersonal chemosensory signalling and mate choice, yet little is known about the role of the SOP on the quality of partnerships and the attachment style. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the SOP in women’s stress responses by considering the role of biopsychosocial variables in the quality of interpersonal relationships (also considering intimate partner violence). In total, 253 women filled out an online survey that included a series of questionnaires to investigate self-perceived stress (PSS), emotional regulation (ERQ), olfactory social assessment (SOS), quality of partnership (RRQ), attachment style (RQ), and the Conflict Tactile Scale 2 (CTS-2). The main results highlight that a high awareness of social odours correlates with a good quality of relationship and with an emotional regulation capacity; the PSS correlates negatively with the ERQ (i.e., as the PSS increases, the ERQ decreases). The level of IPV predicts an interpersonal style characterized by a low desire to develop meaningful relationships but with a tendency to depend on and trust another. The idea of being hurt by the other is not central in women who experience this type of relationship. The study’s main conclusion is that social odour perception is important for emotional regulation and in partner relationships.

One of the main relevant Tests that analyzes the visuo-spatial component can be considered the Courses Block Tapping Test (CBTT). The visuo-spatial component is an extremely present component also in the olfactory perception, where, from the evolutionary point of view, it seems to be the further development of ancestral olfactory abilities linked to the location of the olfactory marker. In the present research, through the use of the CBTT associated with an olfactory component, it was investigated how the sense of smell can be related to tasks requiring the use of visuo-spatial memory and whether this component can be gender-dependent. In the present study, 153 healthy subjects were recruited (mean age 22.6 ± 4.3; 92 women). The Courses Test was administered according to three different sessions and modalities: 1) classical version of the CBTT; 2) Olfactory CBTT (OCBTT); 3) Semantic-Olfactory CBTT (SOCBTT). In the OCBTT, squares of paper wet with specific odorants were placed on the cubes. The layout of the block (B), the same for all subjects, was: Eucalyptus (B1); Carvone (B2); Eugenol(B3); Isoamyl Acetate (B4); Geranium (B5); Phenylethyl alcohol (B6); Hexanal (B7); Acetophenone (B8), Cinnamon (B9). During the experimentation phase the squares arranged above the cubes were smelled according to sequences and methods described for the standard CBTT. At the end of each sequence, a paper square, wet with an odorant pseudo-randomly chosen, was extracted from a pocket and administrated to the subject. Therefore, the experimenter asked to indicate on which B the odorous square corresponded to the one just presented. In this condition, the same exclusion parameters of the CBTT were used. At the beginning of the SOCBTT, the experimenter read, only one time, the complete list of the odorants used. Then the subjects performed the same task of the OCBTT, but, at the end of each sequence, the subject had to identify through the naming the odorants recognized during the sequence. The sequence of the tests was alternated for each subject to avoid a primacy or habituation effect linked to olfactory stimulation. A GLM repeated measures was performed considering as between factor the variable Group (Male and Women) and as within factors the SPAN scores obtained in the three different CBTT modalities (i.e., CBTT; OCBTT; SOCBTT). Furthermore, a correlation analysis was carried out between the three levels of the test. The results of the analysis showed a gender difference in terms of a better performance of men for CBTT, OCBTT and SOCBTT; moreover, the SPAN score was higher in CBTT, and decreased respectively in OCBTT and SOCBTT. Correlation analysis showed a positive correlation between the three CBTT variants (i.e, CBTT, OCBTT and SOCBTT). These results confirm that there is a common perceptual pathway between olfactory and visuo-spatial working memory, also evident in behavioural data. Future work will focus on validation of these test variants.

The virtual reality (VR) is scientifically recognized as an interactive tool and simulation that allows a specific form of communication. Recently it has been considered as a tool of therapy in the rehabilitation of neurodegenerative and some psychological disorders, making it a useful adjunct (and not replacing) of the classic techniques of psychotherapy, in that,acting as a Cognitive-ExperientialTherapy, succeeds is to mediate between the study of the therapist and the real world, both to overcome some obstacles related to some classic treatments exhibition of imaginative type.The recreated environments using theVR technology, in fact, may represent a further context for social interaction through which the user has the opportunity to experience real-life situations, objects and feared contexts, to have feelings, emotions and thoughts (past or present) on his psychological distress and increase the level of self-esteem,self-efficacy and safety,testing new adaptation strategies.And theVR protocol can also be useful as an additional diagnostic tool than traditional methods,since it allows to acquire specific information regarding the cognitive and behavioral sphere of patients undergoing these investigations. For this reason, even today, clinical psychology can utilizeVR as a valid means of assessment, diagnosis and intervention.

Some research in recent years has focused on olfactory perception and how it is highly affected by participation of crossmodal and multisensory perception. An important role in crossmodal interaction has the subject bias to naming the odor, or to represent it in an odor mental imagery, even if the task does not require it. However, although the effect of crossmodal interaction in smell is going to be well investigated, little attention has been paid to facilitation expressed by haptic interaction with a manipulation of the odorous object's shape. Aim of this work is to investigate the interaction and haptic facilitation in a smell task. Ten healthy subjects (25y.o. ± 5 SD), non-smokers, were trained to haptic manipulation of 3D models and olfactory stimulation in a black case. To avoid effects such as color or different textures of the odorous objects models were 3D printed with a monotone blue with rough texture. The smells were selections from five representative types of categorical spatial dimension on the odors (i.e., Cinnamaldheyde, Citral, Hexanal, Phenethyl Alcohol, Acetophenone, Eucalyptol, Carvone, 1 octen-3-ol, Isoamyl Acetate). 9 odors were presented in crossmodal haptic mode (OH), and 27 odors were presented in visual condition (OV). Subsequently, an odor-visual recognition task was arranged during an EEG recording, to investigate ERP components. The subject had to press the Left button if his predominant recognition had been codified through OV or Right button if it had been codified as OH. After the EEG recording, the subject had to perform an odor span task and fill a VAS on 3 dimensions: familiar, arousing and pleasantness. The effects of OV and OH condition and lateralization of N200 and P3b were assessed via linear mixed-effects models that allows controlling the variance related to random factors without any data aggregation. Models were estimated with the lme4 package in R whereas F-tests were computed with the Satterthwaite's degrees of freedom approximation. We found that latencies and amplitudes of N200 increased in the OH condition (F=11.04 p

This research aims to illustrate the progress in the field of Artificial Intelligence, in particular with an examination of the Brain Computer Interface (BCI), also known as Neural Interface.These devices, which have a distinctly interdisciplinary character, binds primarily the medical engineering field with that of neuro - cognitive research and have as main objective the rehabilitation or better support for therapeutic purposes with the so-called lock-in patients. First a brief focus on the neural interface story was outlined, with attention to early studies and recent developments that have characterized this protocol. Then we moved to the clarification of the neuro - psychological components that form the basis of a Neural Interface and therefore, detection systems and the particular brain frequencies that activate a BCI will be analyzed. Finally, we’ll discuss some of the most recent studies which have guided the BCI to new scope for development.

Several studies, analyzing the sensory components of olfactory stimuli, highlight laboriousness to estimate a precise stimulation interfaced in EEG and the consequent psychophysiological stimulus effect. Olfactory perception, starting with a breath, could elicit neuronal and cortical responses which could be investigated through Olfactory Event Related Potentials (OERPs). Nowadays no correlation has been examined between brain cortical response and physiological activation through respiratory markers. The purpose of this work is to investigate OERPs linked to breath physiology by using a new technological device dedicated to olfactory stimulation in EEG and a novel sensor able to detect biomarkers through the Volatile Organic Compound (VOCs). In order to record OERPs correlated to physiological effect on VOCs emission, we interfaced VOS EEG (MI2014A001344), a patent olfactometer connected to an electroencephalograph and an electronic sensor (e-nose iAQ-2000, Applied Sensor) for VOCs parallel recording. This condition allowed us to control olfactory stimulations and to relate them to psychophysiological responses. Consequently, we detected the olfactory response to record, for each given single step of stimulation, the EEG, the OERPs components and VOCs responses. The experimental settings allowed us to investigated, through OERPs and VOCs, the olfactory response to a neutral stimulus [Vaseline Oil CnH (2n+2)], and to a natural stimulus of rose characteristic odor (PEA, 2-phenyl ethanol C2H4O2). We recruited 15 safe adults (mean age 25 ±5 SD) non-smokers. Subjects performed a passive olfactory behavioral task during the experiment. Afterwards, the subjects filled the VAS on familiar and arousing stimuli dimensions. A general linear model repeated measure was performed on OERPs. Statistical analysis shows main OERPs results on slow potential components, in particular for P3b on Frontal right lobe (PEA p=.003) (PEA*arousing p=.023) in direction of a greater amplitude vs. control; N4 on right frontoparietal (PEA p=.037); and on right frontotemporal (p=.025) positions; N6 on right frontoparietal position (PEA p=.038) (PEA*arousing p=.009) both in direction of greater amplitude in PEA condition. The control exhaled VOCs frequencies are fitted by a normal distribution (single peak fit R2 = .8), PEA administration exhaled VOCs frequencies are fitted by a bimodal distribution (double peak fit R2 = .9). Exhaled VOCs are significantly different, according to the results of different cortical activation induced by olfactory stimulation. Our study suggests that in smell perception (both in odorous and neutral) we can observe the involvement of slow components, related to the breath of the subject, according to the time of perceptual processing. Furthermore, we connected in real time a given stimulus to olfactory cortical activation, analyzed through OERPs, and breath exhalation, as VOCs (physiological response), innovative connection never yet investigate.