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Scenarios modelling offers to forest management an option how to envision complex future associated with various natural, social, or economic uncertainties. The challenge is what modelling method to choose as many methodological approaches to scenario building exists. Morphological analysis is a basic modelling method for structuring and analysing a whole set of relationships existing in multi-dimensional, non-quantifiable, and complex topics. Especially, its application is relevant when abstract policy or market-driven challenges need to be investigated. In this study, we demonstrated the usefulness of the morphological analysis with an example case taken from forest management in Slovakia. The use of the method has enabled, from a number of uncertain futures, to identify three possible, plausible and consistent future scenarios of possible forest management direction in the regions of Podpoľanie and Kysuce. Additionally, the future scenario modelling as prognostic method of qualitative research supported by quantitative models or forestry DSS could introduce participation and more dimensions into forest management modelling. Thus, the future scenarios modelling offers new methodological possibilities to how to deal with increasing uncertainties associated with increasing demands for various ecosystem services or negative impacts of climate change, that forest management in Slovakia will face in the near future.

Sustainable forest management is driving the development of forest decision support systems (DSSs) to include models and methods concerned with climate change, biodiversity and various ecosystem services (ESs). The future development of forest landscapes is very much dependent on how forest owners act and what goes on in the wider world; thus, models are needed that incorporate these aspects. The objective of this study is to assess how nine European state-of-the-art forest DSSs cope with these issues. The assessment focuses on the ability of these DSSs to generate landscape-level scenarios to explore the output of current and alternative forest management models (FMMs) in terms of a range of ESs and the robustness of these FMMs in the face of increased risks and uncertainty. Results show that all DSSs assessed in this study can be used to quantify the impacts of both stand- and landscape-level FMMs on the provision of a range of ESs over a typical planning horizon. DSSs can be used to assess how timber price trends may impact that provision over time. The inclusion of forest owner behavior as reflected by the adoption of specific FMMs seems to be also in the reach of all DSSs. Nevertheless, some DSSs need more data and development of models to estimate the impacts of climate change on biomass production and other ESs. Spatial analysis functionality needs to be further developed for a more accurate assessment of the landscape-level output of ESs from both current and alternative FMMs. European Commission Horizon 2020 Portuguese Science Foundation

Original Research Europe’s forests provide vital habitat for biodiversity and essential ecosystem services whose provision must be sustained or enhanced over the coming century. However, the potential to secure or increase forest ecosystem services, while securing the habitat requirements of taxa remains unclear, especially within the context of uncertain climate and socio-economic developments. To tease out the associated trade-offs and synergies, we used 10 case study landscapes within nine countries throughout Europe. Starting with the current status of the forests in the case study landscapes, we simulated forest development 100 years into the future. Simulations were embedded in three combined climate and socio-economic frame scenarios based on global and European policies which varied in their climate change mitigation efficiency. Scenarios were translated into country specific projections of climate variables, and resultant demands for wood products. Forest management regimes were projected to vary in response to these scenarios at local scales. The specific combinations of alternative forest management practices were based on parallel research and input from local forest stakeholders. For each case study, a specific forest growth simulator was used. In general, the climate scenarios applied did not cause fundamentally different ecosystem service outputs at the case study level. Our results revealed almost no reduction in outcomes for biodiversity indicators with an increase in wood production, and in some cases synergistic results occurred when diversity was actively promoted as part of the management concept. Net carbon uptake was not strongly correlated with biodiversity, indicating that biodiversity-friendly forest management doesn’t need to curtail carbon sequestration. Notably, we obtained heterogeneous results for the relation between sustainable wood production and net carbon uptake. Most scenarios resulted in a more or less reduced net carbon uptake over the long term, often due to stand age class distribution shifts. Levels of sustainable wood production varied widely during the simulation period, from significant increases (Sweden, Lithuania) to minor changes (Slovakia, Turkey) and slight decreases (Ireland, Netherlands). We place our results within the larger context of European forest policy and the challenges of simulating and contrasting forest biodiversity and the ecosystem services that societies depend on outcomes for biodiversity indicators with an increase in wood production, and in some cases synergistic results occurred when diversity was actively promoted as part of the management concept. Net carbon uptake was not strongly correlated with biodiversity, indicating that biodiversity-friendly forest management doesn’t need to curtail carbon sequestration. Notably, we obtained heterogeneous results for the relation between sustainable wood production and net carbon uptake. Most scenarios resulted in a more or less reduced net carbon uptake over the long term, often due to stand age class distribution shifts. Levels of sustainable wood production varied widely during the simulation period, from significant increases (Sweden, Lithuania) to minor changes (Slovakia, Turkey) and slight decreases (Ireland, Netherlands). We place our results within the larger context of European forest policy and the challenges of simulating and contrasting forest biodiversity and the ecosystem services that societies depend on info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Developments in the past 20 years have changed both the context and the goals of forest management in Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries in general and Slovakia in particular. One might therefore wonder if introduced “integrative” forestry paradigms on the national level are able to provide assimilation of different forest management claims and what are the drivers behind these developments. Analysis of forest management and its context therefore requires a multilevel approach including decision-making at higher institutional levels down to the decisions of local natural resources users. In this paper, we use a politicized Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework that can link various institutional levels and allows for the simultaneous evaluation of a broad context of forest management decision-making and its outcome. The research problem is addressed by means of case studies and a qualitative methodology. The results of 50 in-depth interviews with forest managers, owners, and other actors revealed that both the role of power and institutional setup are the core drivers of the socioecological outcome. Although the behavior and relationship of forest managers and owners in various networks vary, it is against this background that distinct forest management approaches are employed. Each approach delivers a similar set of ecosystem services. As timber is the main source of income, the provisioning services have primary importance. Thus, an integration of various forest management claims is challenging due to current forestry paradigms and the amount of resources available.

This study focused on the derivation of basic stand characteristics from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data, aiming to elucidate which characteristics (mean height and diameter, dominant height and diameter) are best approximated by the variables obtained using ALS data. The height of trees of different species in four permanent plots located in the Slovak Republic was derived from the normalised digital surface model (nDSM) representing the canopy surface, using an automatic approach to identify local maxima (individual treetops). Tree identification was carried out using four different spatial resolutions of the nDSM (0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m, and 2.0 m) and the number of trees identified was compared with reference data obtained from field measurements. The highest percentage of tree detection (69-75%) was observed at the spatial resolutions of 1.0 and 1.5 m. Absolute differences of tree height between reference and ALS datasets ranged from 0 to 36% at all spatial resolutions. The smallest difference in mean height was obtained using the higher spatial resolution (0.5 m), while the smallest difference in the dominant height of the relative number of thickest trees (h10% and h20%) was observed using the lower spatial resolution (2 m). The same trends also apply to diameters. The average errors at resolution of 1.0 and 1.5 m was 8.7%, 5.9% and 9.7% for mean height, h20% and h10%, respectively. ALS-derived diameters (obtained using regression models from reference data and ALS-derived individual height as predictor) showed absolute errors in the range 0-48% at all spatial resolutions. The deviation in mean diameter at a resolution of 0.5 m ranged from -12.1% to 15.3%.

Identifying tree locations is a basic step in the derivation of other tree parameters using remote sensing techniques, particularly when using airborne laser scanning. There are several techniques for identifying tree positions. In this paper, we present a raster-based method for determining tree position and delineating crown coverage. We collected data from nine research plots that supported different mixes of species. We applied a raster-based method to raster layers with six different spatial resolutions and used terrestrial measurement data as reference data. Tree identification at a spatial resolution of 1.5 m was demonstrated to be the most accurate, with an average identification ratio (IR) of 95% and average detection ratio of 68% being observed. At a higher spatial resolution of 0.5 m, IR was overestimated by more than 600%. At a lower spatial resolution of 3 m, IR was underestimated at less than 44% of terrestrial measurements. The inventory process was timed to enable evaluation of the time efficiency of automatic methods.

Mobile laser scanning (MLS) is a progressive technology that has already demonstrated its ability to provide highly accurate measurements of road networks. Mobile innovation of the laser scanning has also found its use in forest mapping over the last decade. In most cases, existing methods for forest data acquisition using MLS result in misaligned scenes of the forest, scanned from different views appearing in one point cloud. These difficulties are caused mainly by forest canopy blocking the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) signal and limited access to the forest. In this study, we propose an approach to the processing of MLS data of forest scanned from different views with two mobile laser scanners under heavy canopy. Data from two scanners, as part of the mobile mapping system (MMS) Riegl VMX-250, were acquired by scanning from five parallel skid trails that are connected to the forest road. Misaligned scenes of the forest acquired from different views were successfully extracted from the raw MLS point cloud using GNSS time based clustering. At first, point clouds with correctly aligned sets of ground points were generated using this method. The loss of points after the clustering amounted to 33.48%. Extracted point clouds were then reduced to 1.15 m thick horizontal slices, and tree stems were detected. Point clusters from individual stems were grouped based on the diameter and mean GNSS time of the cluster acquisition. Horizontal overlap was calculated for the clusters from individual stems, and sufficiently overlapping clusters were aligned using the OPALS ICP module. An average misalignment of 7.2 mm was observed for the aligned point clusters. A 5-cm thick horizontal slice of the aligned point cloud was used for estimation of the stem diameter at breast height (DBH). DBH was estimated using a simple circle-fitting method with a root-mean-square error of 3.06 cm. The methods presented in this study have the potential to process MLS data acquired under heavy forest canopy with any commercial MMS.

The paper presents an application of structural analysis in search of key drivers and barriers of forest management in two Slovak regions: Podpoľanie and Kysuce. A comparison with factors identified in selected European regions is also presented. First, various relevant factors affecting forest management were selected for both regions. The selections draw on the pool of primary data (structured in-person interviews) and secondary data (qualitative analysis of national and European documents). Second, factors were grouped according to the STEEP categories (Society, Technology, Economy, Ecology, and Policy). Subsequently, factors were rigorously assessed by the regional stakeholders in participatory workshops, and their answers were analysed by structural analysis with the help of Parmenides EIDOS™ software. The results show that in both Slovak regions political, economic, and ecological factors dominated over social and technological factors. The comparison with selected European regions revealed that in the Slovak and other European regions, the Policy category dominated due to having the highest number of factors and their overall impact on forest management. In contrast, the least important societal domain was Technology in both the Slovak and other European regions. However, while stakeholders across the selected European regions perceived the Society domain as significant, stakeholders in both Slovak regions perceived the Economy and Ecology domains as more significant.

Sustainability and the optimal provision of the various ecosystem services is an essential task in forest management. In this study, we deal with the optimization of forest tending to achieve the maximal long-term provision of financial incomes from wood at a minimal level of ecological risks for selected small ownership unit. The methods of interactive decision maps and reasonable goals (IDM/RGM) were connected with a modern forest growth simulator to investigate the four-dimensional optimization space and to produce the complete set of Pareto optimal solutions. The four different types of forest owners as potential decision-makers were simulated, and precise management goals in multidimensional target space were defined. Then, the optimal tending system for each forest owner in three stands, differing by the degree of the naturalness of the species composition, was detected. The multi-criteria analysis suggests that predominantly economically oriented forest management still prevails in the Czech and Slovak Republics, which can be as a source of conflicts among forest owners and other stakeholders. The existence of trade-offs between biodiversity, ecological stability and wood production and different owners&rsquo, demands must be taken into account. The possibility of balancing the management risks and wood provision according to the owner&rsquo, s and other stakeholders&rsquo, demands with the aid of the easy-to-apply IDM/RGM methods (and the careful assistance of a specialist experienced in multi-criteria optimization) was introduced. At the same time, the application of real integrative management in small forest areas was demonstrated in practice. After the change of paradigm in forest management, the applied methods should prevent increasing conflicts among owners and society in former socialist countries, which have undergone a fundamental transformation in terms of forest ownership in recent decades.

Project COST Action FP 0804 - FORSYS summarizes European experiences in developing and applying decision support systems for forest management. This paper introduces FORSYS methodology for the classification of current forest management problems and for the description of existing decision support systems. The paper identifies the general forestry planning problems that need to be solved in Slovakia, lists the DSS tools available in Slovakia and evaluate their ability for addressing the identified problems. Finally, the research needs and gaps in this field were identified. A comparison of the situation regarding decision support in Slovakia and both in Europe and neighbouring countries (Austria, Hungary) is introduced in order to justify the identified needs. The paper is focused on the overview of models, methods and knowledge management techniques which are available in Slovakia now. We found out that the Slovak decision support research follows the state in Europe with a significant time delay and a lack of adequate instruments for addressing the contemporary planning problems exists. Consequently, there is a strong need for the development and application of computer-based tools to support decision-making problems in forest management.

For forest sustainability and vulnerability assessment, the landscape scale is considered to be more and more relevant as the stand level approaches its known limitations. This review, which describes the main forest landscape simulation tools used in the 20 European case studies of the European project “Future-oriented integrated management of European forest landscapes” (INTEGRAL), gives an update on existing decision support tools to run landscape simulation from Mediterranean to boreal ecosystems. The main growth models and software available in Europe are described, and the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches are discussed. Trades-offs between input efforts and output are illustrated. Recommendations for the selection of a forest landscape simulator are given. The paper concludes by describing the need to have tools that are able to cope with climate change and the need to build more robust indicators for assessment of forest landscape sustainability and vulnerability. The INTEGRAL project has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement No. 282887. http://www. integral-project.eu/. Moreover, financial support by the Transnational Access to Research Infrastructures activity in the 7th Framework Programme of the EC under the Trees4Future project (No. 284181) for conducting the research is gratefully acknowledged. This research has also received funding from the European Union H2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 691149 (SuFoRun). Researcher Jordi Garcia-Gonzalo was supported by a “Ramon y Cajal” research contract from the MINECO (Ref. RYC-2013-14262) and has received funding from CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya. This paper could be achieved thanks to support of EFIATLANTIC donors: Conseil regional d’Aquitaine, Ministère de l’agriculture et de la forêt.

In the paper we introduce an approach of mapping of surface forest fuel spatial distribution using the results of field survey and functions and tools of the ArcGIS environment. The analysis was provided for the Stare Hory locality, which was affected by a forest fire in April 2011. For classification of the surface forest fuel we used the terrain curvature features. Totally we identified 4 basic classes of terrain morphology (ridges and valleys with a low and high curvature). For those classes we did the field survey oriented to the investigation of the forest fuel volume in t.ha-1. To quantify the surface forest fuel volume as precisely as possible we established 21 test plots in the field. Using the tools of Spatial Analyst in ArcGIS we produced the map of surface forest fuel volume distribution in the locality of Stare Hory. Results of such analyses are required as input data to the fire modeling and simulation processes in Farsite and FlamMap environments.

The article deals with the issue of the aerial survey of forest transportation (road mapping and calculation of skidding distance), via methods of remote sensing of the Earth and geographical information system (GIS) applications. Road network mapping was carried out by the manual vectorisation of linear objects based on terrain models created from laser scanning data. Based on the roads and digital terrain model derived from airborne laser scanning data, the average skidding distance for every forest stand was calculated. An algorithm created in the ArcGIS environment was used for calculation, which fully automated the calculation of the skidding distance. The versatility of the suggested method was verified on the study area of the University Forest Enterprise of the Technical University in Zvolen. The results indicated that it is possible to identify the permanent and, under certain conditions, temporary network of forest roads from airborne laser scanning data, including the case of roads situated und...

The work deals with the creation of digital maps of the intensity of GSM/EDGE signal on the territory of the Forest Enterprise at the Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia. Simulation of electromagnetic radiation intensity was calculated using the prediction program TEMS Parcell, based on technical data of transmitters and receivers, as well as attenuation due to the environment. Calculated values were verified in field measurements by means of testing apparatus placed in the measuring vehicle. The output vector layer contains areas categorized according to the suitability of signal intensity for field use with data or voice services.

While sustainable forestry in Europe is characterized by the provision of a multitude of forest ecosystem services, there exists no comprehensive study that scrutinizes their sensitivity to forest management on a pan-European scale, so far. We compile scenario runs from regionally tailored forest growth models and Decision Support Systems (DSS) from 20 case studies throughout Europe and analyze whether the ecosystem service provision depends on management intensity and other co-variables, comprising regional affiliation, social environment, and tree species composition. The simulation runs provide information about the case-specifically most important ecosystem services in terms of appropriate indicators. We found a strong positive correlation between management intensity and wood production, but only weak correlation with protective and socioeconomic forest functions. Interestingly, depending on the forest region, we found that biodiversity can react in both ways, positively and negatively, to increased management intensity. Thus, it may be in tradeoff or in synergy with wood production and forest resource maintenance. The covariables species composition and social environment are of punctual interest only, while the affiliation to a certain region often makes an important difference in terms of an ecosystem service’s treatment sensitivity info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Natural hazards are the main threat for forest all over the world. Some of these disturbances may be insured such as fire and/or storm in some European countries. However, forest insurance has trouble to spread in particular because of the existence of some brakes such as the forest insurance premium, often considered as too high compared to the profitability of the forest investment. In this context, we propose an actuarial insurance model to insure multiple natural hazards (windthrow, fire, insect outbreak) in forests that determine the insurance premium in different senarios. In particular, the scenarios differ in terms of the link between the hazards, either they are mutually independent or dependent, and in terms of the parametric solutions to the actuarial problem, either a discrete time period approach or a continuous one. We propose an application of the actuarial model to a silver fir ( Abies Alba Mill.) stand in the Slovak Paradise region (Slovakia). We show that gross insurance premiums range from €5.62/ha at a scale of 150,000 ha at age 150, to €6312.81/ha at a scale of 15 ha at age 50. In addition, we show that the most efficient solution in terms of the minimisation of the gross insurance premiums is provided under the assumption of random occurrence of mutually independent natural hazards and with a continuous time period approach.

The paper addresses the occurrence of incidental felling caused by wind in relation to selected morphometric characteristics. The investigation was conducted in the Nízke Tatry Mts. and Kozie chrbty Mts. (Slovakia) in the period of 1984–2003. A frequency of incidental felling in response to the elementary morphometric factors - altitude, slope and aspect – was evaluated. The assessment was based on the probability analysis. The results describe the probability of incidental felling occurrence in the prescribed categories of used morphometric factors across the study area. The most susceptible forest stands were found to be distributed in the elevation range from 731 – 1,120 m a.s.l. (48.13% of the research area); on slopes less than 58% (75.89% of the research area); with the aspect from 106 to 40° (53.06% of the research area). The proposed methodology can be used for the assessment of the effect of diverse factors on the occurrence of incidental felling caused by various forest disturbances. The results can be used as input data for risk models supporting forest management.

After a strong wind disturbance in the High Tatras Mountains National Park in November 2004, the problem of forest fire prevention has attracted much attention from our society. Under our conditions, forest fire is an undesirable phenomenon, damaging not only the forest ecosystem but also, if the fire spreads behind the forest borders, endangering the property and lives of people.