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In this article, I discuss how walking as mapping serves as a method for observing and disrupting spatial geopolitics, opening possibilities for alternative systems of living. I explore three theoretical perspectives--posthumanism, Indigenous and decolonializing theories of land, and Black geography--that, while distinct, nonetheless share some overlapping characteristics: the recognition and contestation of knowledge systems, the turn toward a relational ethics of living, and a call for critical and creative methods of mapping. intervention into existing systems. In the final half of the paper, I consider these orientations and their call for creative and critical methods of intervention as I review my scholarship on walking and how it has served as a form of counterstory mapping.

This study explores a Japanese-Korean-English trilingual Asian-American child's identity negotiation in a multicultural book club. Drawing upon the conception of "figured world" (Holland et al. 1998. "Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), it investigates how the book club as "a space of authorship" offers the 9-year-old girl of migrants opportunities to negotiate her multiple identities while responding to the books and interacting with the book club members. The weekly multicultural book club was held in a local public library for 34 weeks. The data included field notes of the book club sessions, transcripts of the book discussions, interviews with the child's mother, and the child's journal entries. The data were analysed on a weekly/monthly basis with interpretative approaches. The findings revealed that the child appreciated diversity and fortified her identity as an activist self who stood against social practice that marginalised people from different backgrounds. However, the identity was questioned and challenged by the book club members. The book club pushed her into a space where she encountered different perspectives and negotiated conflicting identities.

Previous intergenerational communication studies paid only scant attention to acculturation orientation differences in communication between different age groups within a single culture. Many co-cultural groups in the U.S. are encountering emerging acculturation orientation differences between generations. The present study focused on one co-cultural group (Japanese Americans) to gain an understanding of the implications of multiple cultures on the process of intergenerational communication in the U.S. Using Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), this study particularly investigates the relationships between communication satisfaction, acculturation orientation differences, and communication accommodation among Japanese Americans. A total of 218 Japanese Americans (M[subscript age] = 43.32, SD[subscript age] = 17.69) from across 27 different states participated in the study. The main findings include: (a) generations and age groups did not affect acculturation orientation, (b) comfort using Japanese language varied between the new first generation and the traditional second, third, fourth generations, while comfort using English language was not significantly different across generations or age groups, (c) while integration orientation directly affected communication satisfaction when commutating with older Japanese Americans, assimilation orientation indirectly affected communication dissatisfaction through the use of avoidant communicative behaviour.

A critical reappraisal of the origin story of early care and education (ECE) in the United States, this article unsettles dominant narratives by investigating the carceral foundations and liberatory strategies that characterise the emergence and sociopolitical evolution of ECE. Integrating Foucauldian counter-historical genealogy and counterstorytelling, a tool from Critical Race Theory, this article advances a "genealogical counterstory" that (1) traces the carceral foundations of ECE across three sites typically exiled from public memory and origin storytelling: plantations, off-reservation boarding schools, and incarceration camps; and (2) describes three emergent themes of womanist anti-carceral praxis evident across the sites: redefinition of educational philosophy, creation of educational third spaces, and fortification of culturally relevant epistemologies. Confronting dominant narratives of ECE origins, this genealogical counterstory illustrates tensions and transformations indicative of the complexity and contradictions of American ECE philosophy and pedagogy. This article also attends to the sociopolitical significance of ECE rendered through genealogical counterstorytelling, as well as relations to pressing contemporary equity issues.

On December 7th and 8th, 1941, President Roosevelt issued three proclamations stating that any natives, citizens, or subjects of Japan in the United States would be liable to possible arrest, detention, or removal from the United States (Roosevelt 1941). Roosevelt followed the enemy alien proclamations with Executive Order 9066, authorizing the military to relocate any Japanese, German, or Italian enemy aliens away from areas of military importance (Roosevelt 1942). Under the auspices of Roosevelt's executive order, relocation and interment plans were developed and implemented. The purpose of this research is to explore the development and impact of the Adult Education program at the Gila River incarceration camp in Arizona for Japanese Americans that operated from 1942 through 1945 under the authority of the War Relocation Authority (WRA). This article particularly examines the Adult Education program, where popular offerings included courses in Americanization, Vocational Education, and English as a Second Language (ESL).

Children's literature is a powerful way to engage young learners in understanding the civil rights movement (CRM); yet at the same time, most children's books focused on the CRM often create ahistorical, inaccurate depictions by only focusing on a few key people such as Rosa Parks or Martin Luther King Jr. or events such as the March on Washington. This is problematic as it negates the multiple actors who worked toward racial equality in the U.S. Recently, there have been calls to bring more Asian American voices into the classroom. In this article, the authors who are teacher educators and a white parent of a Korean American (Heather L. Reichmuth) and as a Taiwanese-Japanese American (Kyle L. Chong) share how children's literature can be used to center the contributions of Asian Americans to the ongoing work of civil rights activism while disrupting harmful/racist stereotypes about Asian Americans.

Ansel Adams and Dorothea Lange's photojournalist activism during World War II was a direct response to President Franklin Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 (EO 9066), which led to the incarceration of 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans in 10 camps across seven mostly western states. Approximately two-thirds of those imprisoned were U.S. citizens. Japanese and Japanese Americans living in many other parts of the country were not imprisoned; and only one percent of those living in Hawai'i were incarcerated, despite the islands' location in the actual Pacific theater of war. This article describes an inquiry-based lesson exploring Dorothea Lange and Ansel Adams's World War II photographs of incarcerated Japanese Americans can launch important classroom discussions on nativism, scapegoating, and the history of anti-Asian racism in the United States. Jay M. Shuttleworth and Timothy Patterson chose to highlight their work for two reasons. First, we used their work as an example of what it looks like when photojournalists do not remain neutral and risk their reputation to highlight injustice and promote social change. Lange and Adams's work serves as a reminder that responses to injustice are the responsibility of all. Second, they are an important, if not overlooked teaching resource, as the vast majority of their images are in the public domain, freely available via the National Archives or Library of Congress online catalogs. Together with the film negatives and text, the photos comprise an unparalleled collection offering unique opportunities for the social studies classroom. In concluding this article, they offer some implications for expanding this lesson to also include the voices of Japanese Americans.

The internment of Americans of Japanese descent during World War II lies at the heart of ongoing discussions in American social studies. We analyzed inputs of members of the Yahoo! Answers Q&A online community following students' questions dealing with differential treatment of Japanese and German and Italian American citizens during World War II, and whether the internment of Japanese Americans was justified. The questions were submitted to the community by students struggling with their coursework. The majority of responses to the first question justified the differential treatment, citing national security and presenting Japanese Americans as a threat. The dominant position in the case of the second question negates internment legitimacy and views it as a gross violation of justice and as a racially motivated act. These stances, likely to make their way into submitted assignments by students, necessitate the familiarization of teachers with such discussions as they take place within Q&A communities.

Early adverse experiences can hold lasting influence on later life outcomes, particularly during formative developmental periods such as adolescence. The current study evaluates the impact of different kinds of adolescent trauma on later sense of purpose in adulthood, using data from the Hawaii Longitudinal Study of Personality and Health. Participants (n = 545) retrospectively reported three kinds of trauma during adolescence: (1) non-betrayal trauma, such as a natural disaster; (2) low betrayal trauma, such as being abused by a stranger; and (3) high betrayal trauma, such as being abused by a relative. At a later assessment, participants (M[subscript age] = 60.15, SD = 1.96) reported their sense of purpose. Trauma scores were uncorrelated with sense of purpose for the overall sample. However, the associations differed when comparing two of the largest cultural groups in the sample, Japanese Americans and Native Hawaiians. For participants who identified as Japanese American, trauma scores held a negative association with later sense of purpose across multiple measures. Results are discussed with respect to how early life experiences differentially impact purpose development across individuals.

Difficult histories that may contradict national values are rarely taught in elementary schools. This comparative study of two elementary educators examines their pedagogical approaches to the teaching of Japanese American incarceration as difficult history. Framed by Asian American critical race theory, the teachers' practices revealed challenges in teaching Japanese American incarceration as an example of a difficult history. The author interrogates the role of counternarratives and empathy in teaching difficult histories, particularly with young children, and offers suggestions for pedagogies of discomfort that reveal difficult histories while fostering critical hope.

Teachers regularly evaluate children's literature for literary quality and age-appropriate information. Today's picture books address issues such as world population, homelessness, climate change, and other socially important themes, but when faced with social studies lessons on sensitive topics such as war and its reality, elementary teachers may hesitate when faced with realism in text and images. School librarians provide excellent opportunities for teachers to collaborate in the selection of suitable titles which will maximize student learning and understanding, especially when reading about sensitive or controversial topics. A strong social studies program provides students opportunities to explore similarities and differences within varied cultural contexts. Placing the right books at the right time in children's hands can make an important impact in developing children's worldview. In this article, the authors review a variety of picture books that look at the realities of war from several periods in recent history and from several perspectives: (1) protection of innocence; (2) Japanese experiences in World War II; (3) experiences of the Holocaust; (4) costs of war; and (5) resiliency. In this brief exploration, the authors discuss titles that will engage student attention, provide room for discussion, and address serious issues in ways that children can comprehend. They address considerations in title selection, classroom use, and Common Core Anchor Standards connections.

The purpose of this study was to examine Japanese parents of children with disabilities' perceptions towards special education in the United States. This study included 40 participants who were born and raised in Japan and they are now living in the United States. The results revealed that most Japanese parents still maintained some negative perceptions towards special education from its history of labeling individuals with disabilities as "abnormal" in Japanese culture. Moreover, a majority of participants agreed that America's special education was more focused on each individual's needs and promoted independence whereas Japanese ideas of special education was mainly focused on how to segregate individuals with disabilities from other people or society. Regardless of the language and cultural differences, most participants preferred American service providers who were familiar with special education systems in the U.S. Nevertheless, a significant number of participants claimed that the language barrier and difference in cultures and customs were one of the major disadvantages of receiving services from American professionals.

This article describes the author's personal journey translating narrative inquiry research methods into pedagogy for her teacher education course. She uses self-study research methods to frame his journey. Self-study is a widely used method in teacher education to reflectively improve one's practice. It provides the researcher a tool to look within, delving deeper into one's teaching context, motives, and actions. Using gained insights, one can then create the possibility for improvements.

The strength of English learners' second language reading is closely associated with academic success. Using qualitative research methods and verbal protocols, this study examines four elementary-level English learners' uses of reading strategies and describes how each English learner employs these strategies while reading both culturally relevant and culturally distant stories. The study describes two types of strategies: higher order thinking strategies and socio-contextual reading strategies. Together, the study draws on intensive ethnographic and verbal protocol research to map out a comprehensive set of 12 reading strategies and describes how English learners employ these strategies in context. This broad view of second language reading incorporates both the cognitive and linguistic skills required for decoding and comprehension, together with consideration of the non-cognitive factors and sociocultural contexts within which reading occurs. The study also shows how learners at different levels process culturally relevant and culturally distant stories differently.

This guided inquiry launched a year-long study centered on social justice issues and people who have championed change in our communities and nation. The article, offers resources and activities that highlight Patsy Mink's congressional achievements and experiences, and push young students to think about the institution of Congress with a gendered lens. The design of this inquiry allows students to delve into the concept of community in their own context before moving into the exploration of the life and works of Patsy Mink. This first-grade inquiry is expected to span approximately a week's time, delivered in 20-to-30-minute lessons. This time frame may be adjusted based on students' background knowledge and experience, and timing should account for the individual class needs. Supporting questions and sources for inquiry activities are also provided.

Contemporary political and cultural realities make the renegotiating of African American cultural images an urgent matter. A recent movement to improve the position of African Americans in the movie business has produced a new wave of debates. Current movies show a variety of approaches to defining those images. The success of "Green Book" has been viewed as a major achievement. It offers an oddly cheerful view leading to a happy ending, as strangers become friends. Today's interracial movies contrast with the scant attention paid to the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II.

The year 2017 will mark the 75th anniversary when President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 or EO 9066 on February 19, 1942. EO 9066 led to the mass incarceration of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans into ten racially segregated concentration camps throughout the U.S. This article discusses the educational and literary value of Japanese American author John Okada's classic novel "No-No Boy" (1957) with a specific focus on implications for adolescent/young adult readers and teachers of English. Specifically, "No-No Boy," as a classic oppositional text, defies the master narrative that Japanese Americans blindly accepted their fate during World War II and were thus able to rapidly assimilate into an accepting and benevolent White-dominated society after the war. Instead, Okada offers a somber critique of the World War II incarceration including how life in detainment destroyed the Japanese American community and families. Implications are provided including highlighting multiple avenues for students and teachers to critically explore the connections between America's racially contested past and present around the themes of civil disobedience, disaffection, and racialized trauma.

This case study explores how six second-generation Japanese American youth recalled learning about cultural diversity at their high schools, particularly information that was intended to represent their identities as ethnic and racial minorities. Semi-structured interviews were used to investigate how the participants made sense of curricular content that did not represent their experiences accurately or completely. Site documents including course documents and syllabi were also analyzed. The findings suggest that (a) Asian/Americans have largely been excluded from definitions of diversity and multiculturalism and (b) when White teachers included lessons intended to teach about Asian/Americans, the content generally reinforced Orientalist stereotypes, particularly colonizing images of the cultural exoticism-pathology binary and/or racial sameness. The implications section details practical strategies for K-12 teachers to include more balanced information about Asian/American experiences in the curricula.

A content analysis of ten United States history textbooks (2005-2008) was conducted by the researchers to determine the current depiction of Japanese Americans and internment during the World War II era. This study updates and expands upon the textbooks used in prior research by Romanowski (1995), Harada (2000), and Ogawa (2004) that had numerous considerations and recommendations for future textbook authors to consider when writing their new editions. Based on the new United States history textbook editions covered for this study, it is concluded that support of some of their considerations and recommendations were taken care of, however, unfortunately others still are not. Additionally, a new consideration for future textbook writers is encouraged by the researchers for clarification of/from interchangeable use of the very different meaning of the terms internment, relocation, and concentration camps.

This study investigated culturally authentic representations and perspectives on historical events and political issues presented in children's picture books on Japanese culture. Our analysis of the representation of Japanese culture in the texts and illustrations was based on a sample of 37 children's picture books written in English or English/Japanese and published in the United States between 1990-2016 for ages 3-8. The majority of the sampled books were found to portray a visible and concrete level of Japanese culture, including clothes, food, holidays, festivals, and traditional activities, some of which had outdated and inaccurate descriptions and illustrations. Social customs and behaviors described in the children's books reflected traditional Japanese values and beliefs well, including respect, harmony, and Wabi Sabi. Books dealing with the crossing of different cultures showed conflicts, confusion, or identity issues in young Japanese protagonists who were often immigrant or biracial. Stories showing Japanese historical events/political issues as background included the voices of the Japanese/Japanese-Americans with their perspectives, instead of mainstream European/American perspectives. Cultural authenticity, going beyond the superficial level to include marginalization at cultural crossings, and the focalization of historical events and political issues portrayed/illustrated in children's picture books are discussed.

The author discusses the content included in an online course on "Multicultural Materials for Young Adults and Children." This graduate course (LIS 5937) for Library and information Science students at the University of South Florida, is a very popular offering for those who plan to work with youth in libraries. The class teaches students how to respond to the reading needs of our diverse patron base by understanding aspects of their values and customs as well as their ways of interacting.

For a number of years, Kent Sakoda has been teaching at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa in the Department of Second Language Studies. His course, "Pidgin and Creole English in Hawai'i," is popular among students on campus. He has also taught at Hawai'i Pacific University. Because of his expertise on the grammar of Pidgin (Hawai'i Creole), Sakoda is a frequently-invited guest speaker. Sakoda was born in Hanapepe, Kaua'i, and grew up there in the 1950s and 60s. His parents owned a garage repair shop, where they spent most of their waking hours. Sakoda recalls his youth as an idyllic time. Everyone in this small rural community knew each other and helped each other out. He and his friends spent many hours playing in the town's park, swimming in the nearby stream, and frequenting one or the other of the town's two movie theaters. They attended 'Ele'ele School, situated on a hillside overlooking Hanapepe. Sakoda's family lived right below the hill. Sakoda remembers the school having a courtyard and large wooden buildings with lots of greenery surrounding it. His classmates were Japanese American, Filipino American, and Native Hawaiian. Like many Japanese American children of his time, he also attended Japanese language school. And like the other youth growing up in Hanapepe, his first language was Pidgin or Hawai'i Creole. After graduating from the eighth grade at 'Ele'ele, he attended Waimea High. In this interview, Sakoda talks about his introduction to Pidgin as a subject of study and then discusses some of the basic features of Pidgin grammar. (Contains 1 endnote.)

This qualitative study explored the verbal and art making responses of Japanese-American elders who experienced the trauma of internment during World War II. Six Nisei (second generation Japanese-Americans) were asked to recall memories of their experiences during and immediately following internment; 3 of the participants also created art images that enhanced memories and evoked emotion. From an in-depth review of the data, the authors identify seven prominent themes: (a) stressful living conditions in camp, (b) art and creativity for camp survival, (c) loss and deprivation, (d) separation or division of family and community ties, (e) disruption of identity, (f) resilience and reaffirmation of values, and (g) the need for legacy and social justice. The study found that participants' internalized shame from being labeled "enemy aliens" has evolved into an externalized concern for discriminatory actions against minority groups that are marginalized by war. (Contains 6 figures.)

Following the Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the nation was thrown into a state of fear and hysteria. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order No. 9066 which resulted in more than 120,000 persons of Japanese ancestry being either interned in relocation centers, drafted, or imprisoned. In communities throughout the Western part of the United States, lessons about democracy, tolerance, and brotherhood were mediated by the reality of the Japanese internment. The internment of Japanese Americans during World War II at the same time that students were being taught about democracy, intolerance, and brotherhood is an example of the mixed messages that were given to students and teachers. The issues and groups have changed since World War II, but educators today continue to face the challenge of helping students understand and develop the skills, knowledge, and habits of heart to be effective citizens in pluralistic democratic society. Balancing unity and diversity is a critical component of that challenge. In this article, the author stresses the important role of schools in helping to resolve the tension between unity and diversity. She argues that giving students the opportunity to grapple with real questions and issues that give prominence to the tension between diversity and unity can help them understand that there are no easy answers and that while they may not find immediate solutions they can help create an environment where the issues can continue to be explored and ultimately resolved. By learning from history, recognizing the ways in which elements of history continue to be present in contemporary society, and taking action to right an old wrong, they gave individuals a glimpse of how schools can educate students who understand the unity-diversity tension and act accordingly.(Contains 1 endnote.)

Data from the Washington State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction show that Asians are the largest non-European teachers group teaching in Washington (2004). One thousand, three hundred, and thirty-three, full-time classroom teachers identify themselves as Asian. In Washington classrooms, there are more Asian teachers than Black teachers (818) or Hispanic teachers (1,175). But despite the large numbers of Asian teachers, Asian Americans have been greatly neglected in studies of the lives and work of US teachers. Most research on teachers' lives and work explores the identities of teachers of European descent, and, in a few instances, the lives of African-American teachers. This study aims to add to the research on Asian American teachers by collecting the oral histories of one Asian subgroup, seven Japanese Americans women in the Pacific Northwest. Drawing on oral history interview data and historical records, the author was able to explore how they became teachers and how they contributed to student learning. She will begin with an overview of the existing literature on issues relating to the hiring and placement of teachers of color in order to provide readers with the background and context in which these teachers were hired and placed in Seattle schools. The experience of African American teachers, who were also marginalized, provides a useful historical foundation for understanding the experiences of Japanese Americans in the teaching profession. Following this review of the literature, she will describe the intersectional framework that guides this study. Finally, she will discuss oral history research methodology and present some of the findings of this research. (Contains 3 endnotes.)

This article examines how "Nisei," the second generation of Japanese immigrants, in Hilo on the island of Hawai'i have maintained their Japanese cultural and linguistic skills. In this article, the author first provides a history of these Japanese immigrant communities in Hilo. This article describes the author's research findings. The author then offers an analysis and explanation using the "reward system" theory proposed by Joshua A. Fishman. The author concludes with some comments on the "Nisei" use of Japanese and the special Japanese culture they uphold. (Contains a bibliography and 17 endnotes.)

The purpose of this study is to analyze the treatment of Japanese-American internment during World War II in high school United States history textbooks. Four reasons highlight the selection of this topic for study. First, this historical event was selected because a little over a year ago was the 60th anniversary of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's signing of Executive Order No. 9066, setting in motion an unprecedented internment of Japanese Americans and those of Japanese descent. Even more than fifty-six years after the last center was closed, the Japanese-American interment experience continues to deeply affect the Japanese-American community. Second, the event has enormous relevance to contemporary issues of interest to high school students including equity and social justice. Discriminatory policies, programs, and practices are still present today. Disparities and inequities manifest at local, state, and federal levels, and in both public and private domains. Since the September 11th attack on the United States, which is often compared to the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, the need for understanding of the democratic ideals of social justice and equity and the issues of national security has never been greater. In the aftermath of September 11, 2001, the Arab-American and Muslim communities have been subjected to many of the same experiences that were once visited on Japanese Americans. Third, the event was selected because of the author's experience teaching the topic at a high school located in a large Japanese-American community, in which approximately 1,000 Japanese Americans currently reside.

This article explores citizenship's multiple meanings in Los Angeles by describing five different types of Americanization, or immigrant education, in the city of angels from 1910 to 1940. The federal racialization of access to citizenship influenced these alternative approaches to Americanization at a local level. In the context of Supreme Court rulings and federal laws that made it difficult for immigrants of color to naturalize in the United States during the Progressive Era, Anglo officials in the school district and settlement houses developed an English-only curriculum that benefited only European immigrants. In response to such restrictions, Mexican and Japanese educators in turn developed programs that showed how learning Spanish and Japanese made their children loyal Americans worthy of citizenship. In the decades before internment and the Zoot Suit Riots, language instruction was one of the few vehicles that allowed Mexican and Japanese Angelinos the opportunity to take control of their Americanization experiences despite the racialized constraints they faced.

February 2017 marked the 75th anniversary of Executive Order 9066 (EO 9066), issued on February 19, 1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt two months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. While this domestic aspect of World War II is often taught in secondary history classes, it is rarely studied in elementary schools. However, children's literature told through the eyes of Japanese American youth is ideal for teaching about this topic, and about racial discrimination generally, to young learners. A year before this historical anniversary, in February 2016, I facilitated a workshop on teaching Asian American history in a large Texas public school district. For the remainder of the spring semester, I observed and interviewed two teachers (workshop attendees) as they taught lessons about Japanese American incarceration to their second and fifth grade students using a combination of children's literature and primary sources. In this article, I provide an overview of EO 9066 and explain my use of the term "incarceration" (instead of "internment") when discussing this historical event, then describe the teachers' lessons and reflections and suggest additional teaching resources.

This qualitative study investigates immigrant mothers' beliefs and practices toward supporting maintenance of their children's heritage language (HL) in the context of transnationalism. The data are primarily drawn from formal and informal interviews and observations of six mothers who immigrated to the United States from Japan and Korea. The findings demonstrate that the immigrant mothers view their children's HL maintenance as a bridge that connects intergenerational families across countries, and as a positive asset that will open up academic and career opportunities for their children in the future. Nevertheless, challenges in maintaining a balance between HL and English were noted. The participants shared three transnational strategies to support HL maintenance, including (1) use of transnational media to teach cultural knowledge and to motivate HL learning, (2) frequent visits to home countries for children to participate in public schooling, and (3) using print and literacy resources in HL that were imported from their home countries. This study calls greater attention to immigrant mothers' transnational knowledge and networks as valuable resources for their children's HL learning. The findings also demonstrate the necessity of examining immigrant children's language learning experiences that traverse across geographical boundaries.

Ralph Carr had neither expected, nor wanted, to be governor. Carr was at the midpoint of his second term as governor when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Public sentiment and the popular press overwhelmingly supported the incarceration of Japanese Americans. On February 18, 1942, for example, one Colorado newspaper editor endorsed Pulitzer Prize winner Westbrook Pegler's view that "the Japanese in California should be under armed guard to the last man and woman right now and to hell with habeas corpus until the danger is over." Government leaders evidently felt the same way: one day later, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066. The order outraged Carr, who vehemently believed that all American citizens, regardless of race or ethnicity, should be guaranteed their constitutional rights. Given this escalating tension, Carr felt it more imperative than ever that he firmly express the state's official stance on Japanese internment. Terrified of being forcibly relocated to internment camps, many Japanese Americans decided to flee the West Coast before internment was officially imposed on March 1, 1942. Because of Carr's open-hearted stance, Colorado became one of their most common destinations. By enabling Japanese Americans to avoid internment by fleeing to Colorado before relocation officially took effect, Carr saved thousands of citizens from suffering these adverse consequences and safeguarded their rights and livelihoods. However, Carr's effect on minority rights continued long after his time in government. This espousal of the constitutional rights of all Americans, regardless of race or ethnicity, had profound implications for minority rights in the United States.