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The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act has been the main focus of educational debate since we entered the 21st Century. It has left educators in dispute about the reasonableness of federally-ordered reforms and the necessity for holding all students to the same academic standards. The 2001 legislation expanded the federal government's role in public education and required greater school accountability and teacher qualifications with little concern for mandate funding. The NCLB requirements have resulted in larger public schools and rural school consolidation. This development has placed unnecessary burden on public schools and has forced many districts to eliminate educational programming. This article will discuss the ramifications of NCLB in public school settings, as well as the specific problems of schools in rural areas.

Those who have taught motor skills would most likely agree that the overhand throw may be the most difficult skill for students to master and for instructors or coaches to teach. The timing involved when generating power to performing the overhand throw begins in the toes/feet and moves up the leg, hip, thorax (core muscles), arm, and ends in the finger tips. The overhand throw requires the coordination of almost all of the joints in the human body. Another consideration related to the complexity of the overhand throw is that the dominant or throwing side of the body is performing almost a completely opposite movement than the non-throwing side. The overhand throw is analyzed joint by joint followed by methods of increasing power and strength in each area beginning with the fingers and ending in the muscles of the body's core. This paper provides information that suggests various methods of training for increasing power in the overhand throw by developing the core and upper body muscles. Often the overhand throw is performed without the assistance of force generated in the lower body. The focus of this paper is directed towards developing upper body strength to compensate for situations where the lower body is in a situation where it cannot contribution in the processes of developing force in the overhand throw.

Participation in strength training is important for older children or young adolescences who wish to improve fitness or participate in sports. When designing strength training programs for our youth this age group is immature anatomically, physiologically, and psychologically. For the younger or inexperienced group the strength training activities may include push-ups, sit-ups, lunges, or pull-ups without barbells or dumbbells. These activities employ one's body weight as resistance. After training at this level those who demonstrate progress may move to machines that provide resistance or dumbbells. When the preparation is sports related the training goals should focus on developing power and strength related to sport specific skills. These types of exercises may be used for those who are entering puberty. Remember, muscle balance must be maintained at all times. Strength training activities should be supervised by those with education and experience in these areas. Although some injuries occur in most physical activities the American College of Sports Medicine supports young adolescences and children's participation in appropriately designed and competently supervised strength training programs. Although all participants should understand the risks and benefits of strength training, a young child should not be expected to comprehend the intricacies of muscle action. Focus on lifetime fitness and teach kids how to exercise properly. Provide a stimulating program that develops in our youth a positive attitude towards strength training and a healthy lifestyle. Benefits include increasing muscular strength, muscular endurance, body composition and sports performance. The primary objectives throughout all levels of youth training are safety, fitness, health, and enjoyment.

It may amaze those in education that in this age of technology and computers, how basic concepts of classroom teaching are similar or even more important than they were 40 years ago when Kounin first defined withitness elements. New challenges, related to laptop Internet instruction, require instructors to develop "withitness" skills and situational awareness as they compete with computers for students' attention and class participation. "Withitness" skills may be needed when teaching students in classrooms with laptops connected to the Internet.

Background: School physical education (PE) programs provide a prime environment for interventions that attempt to develop school-aged children's motor competence and overall physical fitness, while also stimulating competence motivation to engage in physical activity during childhood. It is generally recognized that a pedometer-based intervention strategy combined with a goal-setting strategy may be effective in increasing physical activity participation among school-aged children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of an 8-week pedometer-based goal-setting intervention on children's motivation in PE, motor competence, and physical activity. Methods: A pretest-posttest comparison group design was used with the 8-week intervention (3 days/week for 24 sessions). Participants were 273 (boys = 136, girls = 137) students recruited from 3 elementary schools in the US. Classes in each school were randomly allocated to three experimental conditions: (1) an intervention group with a personalized pedometer weekly target to reach in their PE class (N = 110), (2) an intervention group with the fixed pedometer target range to reach in each PE class based on the recommended criteria (N = 90), or (3) a control group without intervention (N = 73). Analysis/results: The factorial repeated measures MANOVA indicated significant multivariate effects for the group [F(6, 528) = 12.954, p < 0.001]. "Post hoc" analyzes showed that both experimental groups had significantly higher expectancy-value beliefs, motor competence, and physical activity compared to the control group (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Health practitioners should be aware that goal-directed action can contribute to school students' PE-related achievement motivation, motor competence, and achieving the recommended 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

Despite consensus that physical fitness (PF) plays an important role in promoting mental health and academic achievement, little is known regarding the mechanisms by which this effect works. Blair, Cheng, and Holder (2001) proposed a conceptual model to identify the behavioral mechanism of health outcomes, in which both health-related PF and skill-related PF were identified as the direct determinants of health outcomes. Guided by Blair and colleagues' model, the primary purpose of this study was to examine the association between health-related PF, skill-related PF, depression and academic achievement among adolescents. The second purpose was to investigate whether depression would mediate the association between physical fitness and academic achievement among this population. A total of 144 adolescents (M age = 14.55, SD = 0.62) were recruited from two middle schools. Health-related PF was significantly associated with depression, and skill-related PF was related to academic achievement. Mediation analysis supports the statistically significant indirect effect of depression on the relation between health-related PF and academic achievement. The findings suggest that individuals who are physically fit and show positive mental functioning may have better academic achievement during adolescence.

This study examined the associations between indicators of health-related physical fitness (cardiovascular fitness and body mass index) and academic performance (Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills). Partial correlations were generally stronger for cardiovascular fitness than body mass index and consistently stronger in the middle school grades. Mixed-model regression analyses revealed modest associations between fitness and academic achievement after controlling for potentially confounding variables. The effects of fitness on academic achievement were positive but small. A separate logistic regression analysis indicated that higher fitness rates increased the odds of schools achieving exemplary/recognized school status within the state. School fitness attainment is an indicator of higher performing schools. Direction of causality cannot be inferred due to the cross-sectional nature of the data. (Contains 3 figures and 2 tables.)

This paper provides observations of physical fitness testing in Texas schools and physical education teachers' insights about large-scale testing using the FITNESSGRAM[R] assessment (Cooper Institute, 2007) as mandated by Texas Senate Bill 530. In the first study, undergraduate and graduate students who were trained to observe and assess student fitness testing in grades 3 through 12 provided observations. In the second study, physical education teachers responded to selected interview questions during a focus group discussion. From the observations and responses, specific themes emerged related to teachers' knowledge and training about conducting fitness testing and managing data, students' knowledge and motivation, support and resources for conducting fitness assessments, and complexity of the fitness situation. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the quality (reliability and validity) of large-scale fitness testing in Texas and determine if reliabilities and validities were related to potential confounding variables. Four test administration scenarios were conducted to investigate the quality of data collected statewide as part of the Texas Youth Evaluation Project. Teachers and/or expert test administrators tested individual students (N = 1,010) on two occasions. Criterion-referenced reliabilities were very good to generally acceptable for all FITNESSGRAM[R] test items, with musculoskeletal items having the lowest reliabilities. The validity of teacher-administered tests was good. Reliability and validity of teacher-obtained health-related fitness measures were generally unrelated to potentially confounding student or school characteristics. Administrators, teachers, parents, and students can feel comfortable with the reliability and validity of the statewide health-related fitness testing in Texas. (Contains 1 note and 5 tables.)

Our understanding of how people learn is continually changing. Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences revolutionized the field education, because it accounts for a broader range of human potential in children and adults and suggests that individuals learn in a multitude of ways. Gardner's theory suggests there are a variety of possibilities to facilitate learning. People with heightened verbal, linguistic skills are often referred to as word smart. Verbal, linguistic students learn best through the comprehension of language which includes speaking, writing, reading, and listening. Students with verbal linguistic intelligences can easily access information through worldwide databases and computer networks. Any subject content can be enhanced, enriched, and updated from a variety of easily accessed sources which allow students to master the use of technology to access and share information. Students with logical mathematical intelligence are individuals who are number smart and have innate skills which involve logical, problem solving abilities, creative and manipulative skills, and are adept visual learners. Educators can enhance logical-mathematical intelligence through challenging and innovative multimedia technology. With innovative multimedia technology, students learn at all levels and effectively gain knowledge through a variety of different software programs that offer immediate feedback. Learners with visual-spatial intelligence are aesthetically oriented and may have a greater capacity for learning certain sciences like anatomy or topology. They are skillful when it comes to visualization and memory, but may be challenged with auditory memory. Learning for visual-spatial students takes place all at once, with large chunks of information grasped in intuitive leaps. Many people have an innate kinesthetic ability, as well as a natural sense of how their body should react in physical situations. Students with bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence learn best through tactile learning experiences. Bodily-kinesthetic proficiency can be enhanced for students through the use of the whole body to express ideas and feelings. Gardner proposed that musical intelligence almost parallels linguistic intelligence. The person with interpersonal is able to collaborate, understand and work effectively with others. They are aware of their interactions with others and usually take notice of and react to the feelings of others. The interpersonal learner learns best in group situations and structured class settings. Learners with intrapersonal intelligence have accurate self-understanding and are skilled in problem-solving. There is a multitude of different ways to integrate technology into our classrooms and all should focus on learning theory and educational practices. The use of technology should not occur without thinking about how people learn best. To actively engage diverse learners in higher education, the instructor should have a good understanding of the overall nature and purpose of the group, as well as the ability to interact well within the learner's unique world. The instructor must also be able to structure learning activities to meet their learning needs. The use of Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, coupled with an understanding of how effective technology can enhance the learning community, can meet the diverse learning needs of all students.

For the 21st century learner, the foundational principles of information development have grown exponentially. In many fields, the life of knowledge can be measured in months or years, with learning occurring in vastly different ways than in previous decades. Education as a continual process, can last a lifetime, and can be greatly facilitated by technological advances which alter the way in which people access information and think about the world. Faculty members in colleges and universities are challenged to provide a more complete and complex picture of the culture and world in which we live. Educators must maintain a curriculum to meet the demands of an ever-changing population of learners, while striving to diversity higher education curricula to provide a more rigorous educational experience.

The educational process in higher education is much more than just the presentation of a discipline to a group of learners. Leaders in higher education are responsible to students to conduct themselves as educational leaders. Sensible leadership depends upon a variety of factors such as flexible behavior; an ability to identify specific behaviors needed at a particular time, and the ability to incorporate such behaviors at the appropriate time (Wilcox, 1997). A basic understanding of the supervisory behavioral continuum is important to the development of effective leadership skills. The continuum, adapted for use in the educational process, includes ten specific behaviors: listening, clarifying, encouraging, reflecting, presenting, problem-solving, negotiating, directing, standardizing, and reinforcing. Each behavior is clustered into the sub-groups of directive, directive informational, collaborative, and nondirective. To be an effective leader one must have the ability to engage in all aspects of this continuum. To be effective in the college or university classroom, the instructor must have the knowledge about knowing when, why, and with whom to engage. Although one may have a preference or supervisory philosophy which indicates a personal preference to supervision and instruction, an understanding of the supervisory continuum is fundamental to the overall success of passing the role of leadership on to the next generation of learners.

The tenth anniversary of "Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science" causes one to reflect on the major measurement issues impacting physical education and exercise science in the latter half of the 20th century. This anniversary causes us to contemplate how this history has brought us to where we are today and what it portends for the future. The purpose of this report is to provide the authors' interpretation of these significant events. In this article, the authors reflect on five important events have most highly influenced measurement of physical fitness and physical activity in the past half century and will continue to influence measurement experts well into the 21st century. The events are: (1) Initial nationwide interest--Publication of "Minimum muscular fitness tests in school children" by Kraus and Hirshland (1954) in the 1954 "Research Quarterly;" (2) Health-related fitness construct--The development of the "health-related fitness" concept and its differentiation from performance-based youth fitness testing; (3) National youth fitness studies--National studies of youth fitness in the 1980s: the two National Children and Youth Fitness Studies (National Children and Youth Fitness Study [NCYFS], 1985; NCYFS II, 1987) and the National School Population Fitness Survey (President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports [PCPFS], 1986; (4) Evaluation perspectives--The move from norm-referenced to criterion-referenced evaluation of youth physical fitness; and (5) Measuring activity vs. fitness--The interest in assessment of physical activity (the process) rather than assessment of physical fitness (the product). The authors then indicate how each event interacted with the others, how each led to where we are today, and how these have combined to influence measurement and evaluation in physical education, exercise science and kinesiology. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Valid measurement of physical activity is important for studying the risks for morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this study was to examine evidence of construct validity of two similar single-response items assessing physical activity via self-report. Both items are based on the stages of change model. The sample was 687 participants (men = 504, women = 183) who completed an 8-response (PA8) or 5-response (PA5) single-response item about current level of physical activity. Responses were categorized as meeting or not meeting guidelines for sufficient physical activity to achieve a health benefit. Maximal cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and health markers were obtained during a clinical examination. Partial correlation, multivariate analysis of covariance, and logistic regression were used to identify the relations between self-reported physical activity, CRF, and health markers when controlling for gender and age. Single-response items were compared to a detailed measure of physical activity. Single-response items correlated significantly with CRF determined with a maximal exercise test on a treadmill (PA8 = 0.53; PA5 = 0.57). Differences in percentage of body fat and cholesterol were in the desired direction, with those self-reporting sufficient physical activity for a health benefit having the lower values. The single-response items demonstrated evidence of construct validity and may provide feasible, cost-effective, and efficient methods to assess physical activity in large-scale studies. (Contains 3 tables.)

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the force production patterns using perceived stimulus cues from 10% to 90% of maximal force. In Experiment 1, 54 men (age: 19-34 years) and 53 women (age: 18-37 years) performed leg extensions on a dynamometer at a speed of 60 degrees/s. Participants produced actual forces perceived to be 10-90% of maximal force in 10% increments followed by a maximal force. A 2-min rest interval was maintained between each increment. Participants rested 5 min and repeated the protocol. Desired forces were calculated as the required percentage of the produced maximal force. In Experiment 2, 40 men (age: 18-30 years) followed the protocol of Experiment 1, but the submaximal stimuli were randomly presented. In Experiment 1, test-retest results indicated consistency between the trials for actual and maximal force (r = 0.90). The correlations between actual and desired forces were moderately high (r greater than 0.76). Actual forces trended above desired forces at 10% of maximal, with median errors ranging 33-40% for men and 60-73% for women. From 30% to 90% of maximal forces, actual trended below desired forces, with median errors ranging from a low of 1.5% to a high of 37%. A power function analysis relating the change in actual force with desired force stimuli produced exponents of 0.68 (0.95 CI = 0.62-0.74) for men and 0.57 (0.95 CI = 0.52-0.62) for women. Findings were similar in Experiment 2, indicating that individuals tended to overshoot and then undershoot desired force production through perceptual force ranges of 10-90% of maximal forces and that force production grew more slowly than perceptual stimulus cues. The results of the present study, along with findings from past research, indicate that production of submaximal force using perceptual cues or stimuli display a great deal of specificity. This specificity is related to type of contraction, amount of muscle mass involved, and number and types of stimuli. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

Physical inactivity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, stroke, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis, and some cancers. Approximately 950,000 Americans die annually from cardiovascular diseases. The purpose of this study was to determine whether American adults know which traditional and lifestyle physical activities affect health and how they should be physically active to achieve a health benefit. Secondary purposes were to determine whether this knowledge is a function of gender, ethnicity, education, or age and if those who are sufficiently active for a health benefit possess different knowledge levels than those not sufficiently active for a health benefit. Items based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/American College of Sports Medicine principles included knowledge of exercise guidelines and traditional and lifestyle physical activities. This information was obtained from 20 questions that were part of a national random telephone survey of 2,002 American households in the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia. Respondents were most aware of traditional physical activities (M=94%) that provide a health benefit and less aware of specific exercise guidelines (M=68%) and lifestyle physical activities (M=71%) that can result in a health benefit. Knowledge was not related to physical activity behavior sufficient for a health benefit and only slightly related to ethnicity, education, and age. These data suggest that physical activity knowledge alone is not sufficient to elicit a behavior; however, it provides educators with an understanding of the public's physical activity knowledge that could be helpful in developing health promotion and physical activity interventions.

Used FITNESSGRAM fitness standards to compare passing rates of Asian and Pacific Islander (API) students with passing rates of National Children and Youth Fitness Study participants, examining body mass index (BMI) and 1-mile run (OMR) rates. The groups had similar BMI but differing OMR passing rates. There were gender- and age-related BMI and OMR differences. (SM)

This study investigated youth coaching preferences of male and female adolescent athletes and their parents using a modified version of the Participation Motivation Questionnaire (Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983). The modified questionnaire was administered to 239 children ranging from 10 to 18 years of age who competed in summer youth sport leagues and to one parent within each family unit (n = 239). A doubly m ultivariate repeated measure MANOVA revealed sign ficant multivariate diferences for child&apos;s gender (p < .003), parent gender (p < .005) and child/parent pair (p < .001). Discriminant function and univariate analyses indicated that girls preferred a coach who focuses on keeping the athletes active whereas boys preferred a coach who emphasizes fitness and competitive challenge. Also, results indicated that mothers preferred a coach who provides ample opportunities for athletes to learn new skills and can perform the skills of the sport more than did fathers. Children were found to prefer a coach who pr ovides time for the athletes to develop team spirit and friendships, is able to perform the skills, and keeps athletes active during practice more than did the parents. Additional analyses revealed that age of the coach did not matter to most of the athletes and parents whereas the gender of the coach was most important to male adolescent athletes. Understanding coaching preferences of children and their parents may assist in improving adherence in youth sport programs., Participation in organized youth sport programs is an accepted part of childhood development in the United States (Coakley, 1998) and has the potential to have an enormous influence on the [...]