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Purpose: Identifying profiles of preschoolers' motor competence (MC) is essential for providing accurate and targeted intervention. However, little is known regarding children's MC profiles, more specifically how skills may present in unique clusters. The purposes of the study were to explore MC profiles of U.S. children ages 3-6 years, quantify the uniqueness of these profiles, and examine differences by age, gender, race, geographic region, socioeconomic status, and Body Mass Index z-scores. Methods: Participants included children (N = 582, ngirls = 296) aged 3-6 years (Mage = 4.97, SD = .75) enrolled in one of seven early childhood education centers (Alabama, Louisiana, Ohio [× 2], South Carolina [× 2], Texas). Each child's MC was assessed with the 12 skills comprising the TGMD-2. Latent profile analysis was performed using the 12 MC skills. Results: Five profiles of MC emerged, three of which show developing MC but in varying combinations. Wald tests revealed possible MC advantages for preschool children who are older, boys, reside in an urban region, and are of higher socioeconomic status, but only for the proficient MC profile. Conclusion: By uncovering five unique latent MC profiles, professionals should consider the presentation/origins of each profile and use such knowledge to create targeted, individualized MC interventions in American preschoolers. From a research perspective, the implications of this study suggest that researchers should consider person-oriented approaches examining individual skill scores (vs. summed subscale scores) whenever possible.

While football/soccer is the most influential sport in the world, it is surprising that developmental sequences of forceful kicking have not been adequately described and validated in the literature. The purpose of this study was to explore potential developmental sequences for forceful kicking using a prelongitudinal screening method. Data were derived from videotapes of 255 children (girls n = 138, boys: n = 117), ages 4–11 years. Seven potential component sequences in their respective developmental order were initially proposed based on biomechanical and motor developmental principles. Each participant was digitally videoed performing five kicks with maximal effort. Trained research staff coded the initial seven components for each kick and the mode of each participant’s five kicks was used for data analysis. Component level probability curves for each component sequence across age were evaluated using the threshold based generalized partial credit model (Muraki, 1992) within the item response theory framework. As developmental theory would indicate, component levels generally increased with age for most components. Six component ordinal sequence progressions met model requirements (Rel = 0.88, item fit; p > 0.05). Ordinal levels for two components ( Knee action and Follow-through) were altered based on initial empirical model structure fit and the Ball contact component was removed based on a lack of model fit. This study provides sufficient cross-sectional evidence for six component developmental sequences that adequately describe the development of kicking using cross-sectional data. Longitudinal data are required to provide further developmental validation for these sequences.

Background: Recent studies have found the effects of improvements in teachers’ content knowledge (CK) on enacted pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and student learning outcomes. However, there is...

An estimated 60 million children between the ages of six and 18 participate in some form of organized athletics in the United States. Unfortunately, the youth sport landscape has changed where parents and athletes are informed by organizations and coaches that early sport specialization (ESS) is an essential requirement to elite performance. Despite evidence that opposes this limited track, parents still continue to overlook the potential negative consequences. Although, the media commonly portrays ESS as the only pathway to success, research of Olympians and elite athletes in team sports indicates otherwise. To date, there has been on-going research that examines the outcomes of ESS on athletes, but a large portion focuses solely on athlete burnout and injuries from specializing too early. On the contrary, there has been less attention towards the interactions of programs and coaches on parents, who greatly influence their child’s sporting experience. Parents place trust in programs and coaches but are often misled by common myths. The purpose of this article is to summarize the common myths that lead parents to enroll their children in ESS. Whereby raising awareness to these three common myths, parents can become better informed on the perceived requirement of ESS to elite performance in youth sport.

The Welsh foundation phase is a play-based curriculum for 3–7-year-olds advocating outdoor and experiential approaches to learning. Play-based outdoor learning increases interaction with a range of...

Purpose: This study examined the extent to which fundamental motor skill competence (FMSC; locomotor and object control skill competence) and perceived physical competence (PPC) predicted p...

Developmental delay in motor competence may limit a child’s ability to successfully participate in structured and informal learning/social opportunities that are critical to holistic development. Current motor competence levels in the USA are relatively unknown. The purposes of this study were to explore motor competence levels of US children aged 3–6 years, report percentages of children demonstrating developmental delay, and investigate both within and across childcare site predictors of motor competence, including sex, race, geographic region, socioeconomic status, and body mass index percentile classification. Potential implications from results could lead to a greater awareness of the number of children with developmental delay, the impetus for evidence-based interventions, and the creation of consistent qualification standards for all children so that those who need services are not missed. Participants included children (N = 580, 296 girls) aged 3–6 years (Mage = 4.97, standard deviation = 0.75) from a multi-state sample. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition and the 25th and 5th percentiles were identified as developmental delay-related cutoffs. For both Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition subscales, approximately 77% of the entire sample qualified as at risk for developmental delay (≤ 25th percentile), while 30% of the entire sample were at or below 5th percentile. All groups (e.g., sex, race, socioeconomic status) were prone to developmental delay. Raw object control scores differed by sex. Developmental delay in motor competence is an emerging epidemic that needs to be systematically acknowledged and addressed in the USA. By shifting norms based upon current data, there may be a lower standard of “typical development” that may have profound effects on factors that support long-term health.

Highlights • Portuguese children (boys and girls) outperformed U.S. children in the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run test; additionally, Portuguese boys displayed better performance in the standing long jump. • Portuguese children demonstrated lower levels of handgrip strength and throwing speed than U.S. children. • There were no differences in kicking speed between boys from the 2 countries; however, the older group of U.S. girls demonstrated better performance than Portuguese girls. • Physical education curricula and sports participation may explain the differences between the countries., Background Motor competence and health-related fitness are important components for the development and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle in children. This study examined cross-cultural performances on motor competence and health-related fitness between Portuguese and U.S. children. Methods Portuguese (n = 508; 10.14 ± 2.13 years , mean ± SD) and U.S. (n = 710; 9.48 ± 1.62 years) children performed tests of cardiorespiratory fitness (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run), upper body strength (handgrip), locomotor skill performance (standing long jump), and object projection skill performance (throwing and kicking). Portuguese and U.S. children were divided into 2 age groups (6–9 and 10–13 years) for data analysis purposes. A two–factor one–way analysis of covariance (ANOVA) was conducted with the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, handgrip, standing long jump scores, kicking, and throwing speed (km/h) as dependent variables. Results Results indicated that Portuguese children, irrespective of sex, presented better performances in locomotor and cardiorespiratory performance (standing long jump and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run) than U.S. children in both age bands. U.S. children outperformed Portuguese children during throwing and handgrip tests. Kicking tests presented gender differences: Portuguese boys and U.S. girls outperformed their internationally matched counterparts. Conclusion Cultural differences in physical education curricula and sports participation may impact differences in motor competence and fitness development in these countries.

The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the effects of improving a physical education teacher’s content knowledge and, in turn, the teacher’s instructional effectiveness and student learning in an upper elementary physical education setting. Four classes were randomly assigned to either a comparison condition (n4th = 9 students; n5th = 17) or an intervention condition (n4th = 7; n5th = 10). The teacher taught both conditions. The teacher first taught two classes in the comparison condition in a manner that he had taught for the past five years. Following the completion of the teaching, he received a content knowledge workshop. After the workshop, the teacher taught two classes in the intervention condition. Assessment of the teacher following the workshop showed that he obtained higher content knowledge scores than prior to the workshop. These improvements in content knowledge positively impacted his enacted teaching with more appropriate task selection and better instruction. Student learning also significantly improved in the intervention condition, not in the comparison condition, from pre- to posttest. The findings of this study extend the research demonstrating the effectiveness of improving the content knowledge of teachers in impacting student learning, in this case in the upper elementary grade band.

This study examined the feasibility of recruiting and collecting data of Indonesian preschooler’s fundamental motor skill (FMS) competence, perceived motor competence, and physical activity in school. A secondary purpose was to explore the relationship among perceived motor competence, FMS competence, school day physical activity behaviors, playground physical activity behaviors, and sex of Indonesian preschoolers from urban and rural environments. Preschoolers (N = 66;n = 35 rural,n = 31 urban) were evaluated on the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC), Perceived Physical Competence subscale (PPC). FMS competence was evaluated using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3. Three-day accelerometry at school yielded percent of school day and percent of playground time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary behaviors. Children spent 80% of the school day in sedentary behavior and 7% in MVPA. There were sex differences (p p

Purpose:The present study examined the motor competence of preschool children from Belgium and the United States (US), and the influence of perceived motor competence on actual motor competence. A secondary objective was to compare the levels of motor competence of Belgian and US children using the US norms of the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2).Methods:All participants (N = 326; ages 4–5 years) completed the TGMD-2 and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children.Results:Belgian children performed significantly higher on actual object control and locomotor skills than US children. However, both Belgian and US children scored significantly worse on the TGMD-2 when compared to the US norm group from 1997–1998. Furthermore, perceived motor competence was significantly related to actual object control skills but not locomotor skills.Conclusion:The present study showed cross-cultural differences in actual motor competence in young children. The findings also indicate a secular downward trend in childhood competence levels, possibly due to a decrease in physical activity and increase in sedentary behavior. Future research should consider conducting an in-depth exploration of physical activity contexts such as physical education to better understand cross-cultural differences in motor competence.

Tennis is a lifelong physical activity that is played from young childhood to adulthood. Tennis can be used to meet several of SHAPE America's National Standards and Grade-level Outcomes for K–12 Physical Education in elementary school. Specifically, tennis is tied to outcomes relative to “striking with a short implement” in the manipulative skills category in National Standard 1. While the learning outcomes in striking are not specific to tennis, tennis provides a context for their teaching. This article introduces an evidenced-based knowledge packet of 14 instructional tasks to teach tennis to upper elementary students. The focus of this packet is on beginning tennis, which would be taught to upper elementary grades students who are transitioning from learning discrete skills to learning to apply those skills in developmentally appropriate games. The tasks in the knowledge packet are underpinned by Rink's four stages of game development model and the concept of content development.

Examining the underlying processes that contribute to fundamental movement pattern development and their relationship to performance outcomes is essential to effectively promote competence and mast...

This study examined the existence of a threshold level (proficiency barrier) of actual motor competence (MC) below which a child is not likely to attain 60min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day.A cross-sectional study.Actual MC was assessed in 326 children (48.5% boys; age=9.50±1.24years) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2; MVPA was measured with ActiGraph GT3X+accelerometers. Perceived MC, included as a potential mediating variable, was assessed with the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Binary logistic (mediation) regression analyses controlling for sex and a chi-squared test were used to gain insight into the relationship between (the levels of) actual MC and the percentage of children meeting the MVPA guideline.Actual MC significantly predicted the percentage of children meeting the guideline (B=.03, SE=.01, p.001), even when controlling for sex. Perceived MC did not mediate this relationship. Children with high actual MC (65-100 percentile) were 2.46 (p=.003) times more likely to meet the guideline than children with low actual MC (0-27 percentile).The present study demonstrates the potential impact of low MC on children's MVPA levels and suggests evidence for the existence of a proficiency barrier for meeting MVPA guidelines. Almost 90% of the children whose actual MC is below the 'average' threshold do not meet the MVPA guideline. As more children with higher levels of actual MC meet the guideline than their less competent peers, it is crucial to provide opportunities to sufficiently develop children's actual MC.

This chapter will first provide a brief overview of an emerging concept of physical literacy, define motor development, and discuss principles of motor development. We will go on to describe models of motor development and the emergence of key fundamental motor skills (FMSs). A summary of gender differences in motor skills will be provided, along with developmental delays in FMS of young children who are disadvantaged. Along with a conceptual understanding of how FMSs develop, we will also explain how developmental sequences and behavioral attractors can be used instructionally. These concepts are important as many disadvantaged preschool children are delayed in their motor skills and in need of motor skill intervention. Furthermore, when provided with developmentally appropriate motor instruction in programs, these children can make significant and often large gains in their motor skills remediating their prior delays. Thus, we offer a list of resources to assist the early childhood teacher in providing developmentally appropriate instructional activities including lesson ideas provided by several professional organizations. We will conclude with a summary of the motor skill intervention and physical activity literature, along with implications for promoting an active start in young children.

ObjectiveEvaluate the feasibility, fidelity and preliminary efficacy of Camp NERF to prevent unhealthy weight gain and promote healthy behaviours in children during the summer.DesignCamp NERF was an 8-week, multicomponent, theory-based programme coupled with the US Department of Agriculture’s Summer Food Service Program. Twelve eligible elementary-school sites were randomized to one of three treatment groups: (i) Active Control (non-nutrition, -physical activity (PA), -mental health); (ii) Standard Care (nutrition and PA); or (iii) Enhanced Care (nutrition and PA, plus cognitive behavioural techniques) programming. Efficacy was determined by assessing mean change by group in child outcomes using hierarchical linear regression models.SettingLow-income, urban neighbourhoods in Columbus, OH, USA.ParticipantsEconomically disadvantaged, racial minority children of elementary school age (kindergarten–5th grade).ResultsEighty-seven child–caregiver dyads consented; eighty-one completed pre- and post-intervention assessments resulting in a 93·10 % retention rate. Delivery of the intended lesson occurred 79–90 % of the time. Of the children, 56·98 % (n 49) were female; 89·53 % (n 77) were Black. Overall mean change in BMI Z-score from baseline to post-intervention was −0·03 (se 0·05); change in BMI Z-score did not differ significantly between treatment group. Change in nutrition, PA, mental health or psychosocial outcomes did not differ between groups.ConclusionsResults from the current study demonstrate feasibility and fidelity, yet no intervention effect of Camp NERF. Instead, findings suggest that participation in structured programming of any type (health behaviour-related or not) may prevent unhealthy summer weight gain. Additional studies are needed to confirm findings. Results have implications for child nutrition policy addressing the issue of summer health.

Background: Fundamental motor skill (FMS) interventions when delivered by an expert can significantly improve the FMS of young children with and without developmental delays. However, there is a gap in the literature as few early childhood centers employ experts with the professional background to deliver FMS intervention.Purpose: The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a motor skill program called SKIP (Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers) on student learning of object control skills (OC). A secondary purpose was to examine the extent to which early childhood teachers could implement the SKIP program with fidelity (while receiving on-going coaching and support) and the extent to which instructional fidelity influenced OC improvement in the SKIP condition.Participants and setting: There were two levels of participants in this study, early childhood teachers (N = 2, Women = 2) and their students (N = 57; Boys = 53%; Mage = 4.39, Range 3–6). All participan...

AIM: This study aimed to understand the fundamental motor skills (FMS) of Belgian children using the process-oriented Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2) and to investigate the suitability of using the United States (USA) test norms in Belgium. METHODS: FMS were assessed using the TGMD-2. Gender, age and motor performance were examined in 1614 Belgian children aged 3-8 years (52.1% boys) and compared with the US reference sample. RESULTS: More proficient FMS performance was found with increasing age, from 3 to 6 years for locomotor skills and 3 to 7 years for object control skills. Gender differences were observed in object control skills, with boys performing better than girls. In general, Belgian children had lower levels of motor competence than the US reference sample, specifically for object control skills. The score distribution of the Belgian sample was skewed, with 37.4% scoring below average and only 6.9% scoring above average. CONCLUSION: This study supported the usefulness of the TGMD-2 as a process-oriented instrument to measure gross motor development in early childhood in Belgium. However, it also demonstrated that caution is warranted when using the US reference norms.

The present study identified adolescents' motor competence (MC)-based profiles (e.g., high actual and low perceived MC), and accordingly investigated differences in motivation for physical education (PE), physical activity (PA) levels, and sports participation between profiles by using regression analyses. Actual MC was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Adolescents (n = 215; 66.0% boys; mean age = 13.64 ± .58 years) completed validated questionnaires to assess perceived MC, motivation for PE, PA-levels, and sports participation. Actual and perceived MC were only moderately correlated and cluster analyses identified four groups. Two groups of overestimators (low - overestimation, average - overestimation) were identified (51%), who particularly displayed better motivation for PE when compared to their peers who accurately estimated themselves (low - accurate, average - accurate). Moreover, adolescents with low actual MC, but high perceived MC were significantly more active than adolescents with low actual MC who accurately estimated themselves. Results pointed in the same direction for organised sports participation. Underestimators were not found in the current sample, which is positive as underestimation might negatively influence adolescents' motivation to achieve and persist in PA and sports. In conclusion, results emphasise that developing perceived MC, especially among adolescents with low levels of actual MC, seems crucial to stimulate motivation for PE, and engagement in PA and sports.

Gross motor skills encompass a broad array of large muscle movements, from rudimentary skills like rolling and sitting to highly specialized skills such as the serve and forehand in tennis. This entry focuses on a subset of gross motor skills called fundamental motor skills (FMS), which are considered the building blocks to later physical activity and sports performance. FMS include locomotor skills like running and jumping and object control skills such as throwing and catching, along with nonlocomotor skills such as balance. The identification of gross motor delay with regard to FMS occurs when a child fails to achieve important developmental milestones, often lagging 2 years or more behind the typical age- based norm for that skill. The purpose of this entry is to provide a brief overview of FMS and describe gross motor delay in a variety of populations. The entry concludes by examining common interventions.

This commentary examines the argument for early sport specialization versus sport sampling from a physical growth and motor development perspective. Three developmental frameworks are examined (Mountain of Motor Development, Developmental Model of Sport Participation, Spirals of Engagement Trajectory model) to make the case that a broad base of fundamental motor skill competence is necessary in the early years before sport specialization in the adolescent years. Early sport specialization is criticized from the standpoint of increased risk for overuse injury, concerns about long-term growth, and the fact that early and intense practice schedules often do not differentiate elite versus nonelite athletes. A strong argument is made for early sport sampling to acquire a broad base of fundamental motor skills to apply to different sports, and to allow physical maturity to develop before specializing in sport. Such an approach also better equips a child to be active across the lifespan.

Background: Preschool children who are at risk have been shown to demonstrate developmental delays in their fundamental motor skills. The body of research on motor skill development of children indicates that these children, when provided with motor skill instruction, significantly improved their locomotor and object control (OC) skill performances.Purpose: The purpose of this study and the primary research question was to examine the influence of two eight-week motor skill interventions (SKIP – successful kinesthetic instruction for preschoolers and SKIP-PI – SKIP-parent involvement) on the OC competence of preschoolers identified as disadvantaged.Participants and setting: Seventy-two children (36 girls and 36 boys) from two Head Start centers participated in this study. Both centers were the part of the same child development council and had the same standard Head Start curriculum.Data collection: Random assignment of children to intervention group in school A (SKIP or SKIP-PI) was performed. Random ass...

Children from disadvantaged settings are at risk for delays in their object-control (OC) skills. Fundamental motor skill interventions, such as the Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP) Program, are highly successful when led by motor development experts. However, few preschools employ such experts. This study examined the extent to which Head Start teachers delivering an 8-week teacher-led SKIP (T-SKIP) intervention elicited learning of OC skills for Head Start children.Head Start teachers (n = 5) delivered T-SKIP for 8 weeks (450 min). Control teachers (n = 5) implemented the typical standard of practice, or well-equipped free play. All children (N = 122) were pretested and posttested on the OC Skill subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2.Descriptive analyses at pretest identified 81% of the children were developmentally delayed in OC skills (below the 30th percentile). A 2-level hierarchical linear model demonstrated the effectiveness of T-SKIP with significant differences (β = 4.70), t(8) = 7.02, p .001, η2 = .56, between T-SKIP children (n = 63) and control children (n = 59) at posttest.Head Start teachers who delivered T-SKIP could bring about positive changes in children's OC skills, thereby remediating the initial developmental delays presented. Control children remained delayed in their OC skills in spite of daily well-equipped free play, giving rise to concerns about their future motor competence and physical activity levels.

This cross-sectional study examined associations among motor skill competence (MSC) and health-related fitness (HRF) in youth. A convenient sample of 253 boys and 203 girls (aged 4–13 years) participated in the study. Associations among measures of MSC (throwing and kicking speed and standing long jump distance) and a composite measure of HRF (push-ups, curl-ups, grip strength and PACER test) across five age groups (4–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11 and 12–13 yrs.) were assessed using hierarchical regression modeling. When including all children, throwing and jumping were significantly associated with the composite HRF factor for both boys and girls (throw, t = 5.33; jump, t = 4.49) beyond the significant age effect (t = 4.98) with kicking approaching significance (t = 1.73, p = .08). Associations between throwing and kicking speed and HRF appeared to increase from early to middle to late childhood age ranges. Associations between jumping and HRF were variable across age groups. These results support the notion that the relationship between MSC and HRF performance are dynamic and may change across childhood. These data suggest that the development of object control skills in childhood may be important for the development and maintenance of HRF across childhood and into adolescence.

Process-oriented motor competence (MC) assessments evaluate how a movement is performed. Product-oriented assessments evaluate the outcome of a movement. Determining the concurrent validity of process and product assessments is important to address the predictive utility of motor competence for health. The current study aimed to: (1) compare process and product assessments of the standing long jump, hop and throw across age groups and (2) determine the capacity of process assessments to classify levels of MC. Participants included 170 children classified into three age groups: 4-5, 7-8 and 10-11 years old. Participants' skills were examined concurrently using three process assessments ((Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition [TGMD-2]), Get Skilled; Get Active, and developmental sequences) and one product measure (throw speed, jump and hop distance). Results indicate moderate to strong correlations between (1) process assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .37-70) and (2) process and product assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .26-.88). In general, sensitivity to detect advanced skill level is lowest for TGMD-2 and highest for developmental sequences for all three skills. The use of process and product assessments is suggested to comprehensively capture levels of MC in human movement.

Background: To improve student performance, teachers need to evaluate the developmental level of the child and to deliver feedback statements that correspond with the student's ability to process the information delivered. Therefore, feedback aligned with the developmental level of the child (aligned developmental feedback – ADF) is sometimes considered to be the most appropriate type of feedback for improving student learning. It is assumed that the provision of ADF is beneficial in bringing about improvement in the learning of motor skills and subsequently in performance. However, the extent of the influence of ADF on motor performance remains unclear. Purpose: This study examined the influence of ADF on students' performance of the overhand throw for force in a naturalistic physical education setting. Participants: Ninety-seven third-grade students (39 girls, 58 boys) with a mean age of 105.4 months (SD = 4.76) participated in this study. All participants were selected from four intact classrooms in a ...

In Part II of this study, we examined the effect of two 9-week instructional climates (low-autonomy [LA] and mastery motivational climate [MMC]) on perceived physical competence (PPC) in preschoolers (N = 117). Participants were randomly assigned to an LA, MMC, or comparison group. PPC was assessed by a pretest, posttest, and retention test with the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance. A significant Treatment x Time interaction (p < .001) was present, supporting that MMC participants reported significantly higher PPC scores over time, while no positive changes were present in LA and comparison participants. The results show that an MMC leads to psychological benefits related to achievement motivation. These findings should encourage early childhood educators to consider the effect of instructional climates on children's self-perception.

Although significant attention has been paid to promoting the importance of physical activity in children, adolescents, and adults, we do not currently understand how to promote sustained physical activity levels throughout the lifespan. We contend that previous research has failed to consider the dynamic and synergistic role that motor skill competence plays in the initiation, maintenance, or decline of physical activity and how this role might change across developmental time. In this article, we present a conceptual model hypothesizing the relationships among physical activity, motor skill competence, perceived motor skill competence, health-related physical fitness, and obesity. We contend that the development of motor skill competence is a primary underlying mechanism that promotes engagement in physical activity.

The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of critical cues and task constraints on body-component levels and maximum ball velocity. 81 children ( M age = 97.8 mo.) were systematically assigned to one of four strategies. Participants completed 15 throws during each of 4 practice sessions. Differences between groups were found for body-component developmental levels and ball velocity. The differences indicate prompts to throw the ball hard and fast impact ball velocity and body-components by developmental levels. Critical cues also appear to be a useful tool to improve the step component. Results suggest the use of forceful throwing tasks, cues, and velocity feedback can be useful tools to influence throwing performance.

(2007). The Dynamic Association Between Motor Skill Development and Physical Activity. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance: Vol. 78, No. 8, pp. 33-49.

This study examined contextual factors associated with physical activity of urban African American preschoolers (N = 59). Qualitative research methodologies utilized data from home visits, caregiver and child interviews, field notes, and document collection. The primary finding suggested, "In underserved communities fundamental barriers exist that obstruct young children's ability to be physically active." Four themes were developed revealing that outside environments limited opportunities for physical activity, home environments resulted in sedentary behaviors, and communities had limited physical activity role models. Despite this, young children enjoyed being physically active.

The influence of a 9-week instructional program on locomotor and object control skill development of preschoolers who are at risk of developmental delay was investigated. The motor skill instruction group (n = 33) received 18, 35-min lessons; the comparison group (n = 30) received the regular prekindergarten program. Pre and posttest scores on the locomotor and object control subscales of the Test of Gross Motor Development (Ulrich, 1985) were obtained. A Group by Gender MANOVA with repeated measures yielded a significant Group by Time interaction. The intervention group performed significantly better than the comparison group from pre to posttest for both locomotor and object control skills. Additionally, this group had significantly higher posttest scores than the comparison group.

Worldwide obesity is a major concerned and has doubled since the 1980’s. Overweight and obesity problems kill more people than underweight. Being overweight is not only limited to adults. More and more children below the age of five were overweight. As a result, the world is turning their attention to the importance of promoting physical activity at a younger age in an attempt to reduce obesity and chronic diseases later in life. Serious considerations need to be looked at especially in the area of physical activity and motor skills development among children and youth as these will determine their decision to remain physically active in later years. This article discusses the importance of physical activity for children in developing countries and provides some strategies in increasing fundamental motor skills among children.

(2009). Theory into Practice: Promoting an “Active Start” for Young Children: Developing Competent and Confident Early Movers. Strategies: Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 30-32.