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The synaptic connection from medial habenula (MHb) to interpeduncular nucleus (IPN) is critical for emotion-related behaviors and uniquely expresses R-type Ca2+ channels (Cav2.3) and auxiliary GABAB receptor (GBR) subunits, the K+-channel tetramerization domain-containing proteins (KCTDs). Activation of GBRs facilitates or inhibits transmitter release from MHb terminals depending on the IPN subnucleus, but the role of KCTDs is unknown. We therefore examined the localization and function of Cav2.3, GBRs, and KCTDs in this pathway in mice. We show in heterologous cells that KCTD8 and KCTD12b directly bind to Cav2.3 and that KCTD8 potentiates Cav2.3 currents in the absence of GBRs. In the rostral IPN, KCTD8, KCTD12b, and Cav2.3 co-localize at the presynaptic active zone. Genetic deletion indicated a bidirectional modulation of Cav2.3-mediated release by these KCTDs with a compensatory increase of KCTD8 in the active zone in KCTD12b-deficient mice. The interaction of Cav2.3 with KCTDs therefore scales synaptic strength independent of GBR activation.

The molecular anatomy of synapses defines their characteristics in transmission and plasticity. Precise measurements of the number and distribution of synaptic proteins are important for our understanding of synapse heterogeneity within and between brain regions. Freeze&ndash, fracture replica immunogold electron microscopy enables us to analyze them quantitatively on a two-dimensional membrane surface. Here, we introduce Darea software, which utilizes deep learning for analysis of replica images and demonstrate its usefulness for quick measurements of the pre- and postsynaptic areas, density and distribution of gold particles at synapses in a reproducible manner. We used Darea for comparing glutamate receptor and calcium channel distributions between hippocampal CA3-CA1 spine synapses on apical and basal dendrites, which differ in signaling pathways involved in synaptic plasticity. We found that apical synapses express a higher density of &alpha, amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors and a stronger increase of AMPA receptors with synaptic size, while basal synapses show a larger increase in N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors with size. Interestingly, AMPA and NMDA receptors are segregated within postsynaptic sites and negatively correlated in density among both apical and basal synapses. In the presynaptic sites, Cav2.1 voltage-gated calcium channels show similar densities in apical and basal synapses with distributions consistent with an exclusion zone model of calcium channel-release site topography.

SummaryThe connection from medial habenula (MHb) to interpeduncular nucleus is critical for aversion- and addiction-related behaviors. This pathway is unique in selective expression of R-type voltage-gated Ca2+channels (Cav2.3) in its terminals, and robust potentiation of release via presynaptic GABABreceptors (GBRs). To understand the mechanism underlying this peculiar GBR effect, we examined the presynaptic localization and function of Cav2.3, GBR, and its auxiliary subunits, K+-channel tetramerization domain-containing (KCTD) proteins. We found selective co-expression of KCTD12b and Cav2.3 at the presynaptic active zone. GBR-mediated potentiation remained intact in KCTD12b KO mice but lasted significantly shorter. This impairment was associated with increased release and an insertion of KCTD8 into the active zone. In heterologous cells, we found direct binding of KCTD8 and KCTD12b to Cav2.3, and potentiation of Cav2.3 currents by KCTD8. The unexpected interaction of Cav2.3 with KCTDs therefore provides a means to scale synaptic strength independent of GBR activation.

Aim of the study Chitosan, a partially deacetylated polysaccharide derived from chitin, and chitosan-N-acetylcysteine (C-NAC), a thiolated chitosan, both show enhanced retention times on the ocular surface when compared to other polymers commonly used in eye drops. To evaluate these compounds as adjuvants for ocular drug delivery or uptake of topically administered conjunctival vaccines, biochemical characteristics of both polymers were investigated in vitro and in vivo. # Methods Human conjunctival epithelial (HCjE) cells were used to investigate biocompatibility of buffered chitosan and C-NAC containing formulations. Cellular uptake was studied using fluorescein-isothiocyanate (FITC)-labelled polymers. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements were performed to determine effects of chitosan on tight junctions of stratified HCjE cells in vitro. In vivo uptake of topically applied chitosan into conjunctival epithelial cells was investigated in guinea pigs. # Results Minimal effects on cell viability were seen with both compounds after application for 30 min in a concentration of 0.1%. In vitro uptake into HCjE cells was only observed with the chitosan containing solution. An effect on tight junctions was demonstrated by significantly (P

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text., Purpose: To investigate toxicity associated with buffers commonly used in topical ocular drug formulations using a human corneal–limbal epithelial (HCLE) and a human conjunctival epithelial (HCjE) cell model. Methods: HCLE and HCjE cells were incubated for 10, 30, or 60 minutes with 4 different buffers based on borate, citrate, phosphate, and Tris-HCl at 10, 50, and 100 mM concentrations. To detect possible delayed effects on cell viability, after 60 minutes of buffer incubation, cells were further incubated for 24 hours with a cell medium. Cell viability was determined using a colorimetric XTT–based assay. The morphology of cells was also investigated. Results: HCjE cells showed more sensitivity to buffer incubation than HCLE cells. The 100 mM phosphate buffer displayed significant delayed effects on cell viability of HCLE 16.8 ± 4.8% and HCjE 39.2 ± 6.1% cells after 60 minutes of exposure (P < 0.05). HCjE cell viability was reduced after 60 minutes incubations with 50 and 100 mM citrate buffer to 42.8 ± 6.5% and 39.3 ± 7.9%, respectively, and even lower percentages at the delayed time point (both P < 0.05). HCLE cell morphology was distinctly altered by 100 mM phosphate and Tris buffers after 30 minutes, whereas HCjE cells already showed marked changes after 10 minutes of exposure to 100 mM citrate and phosphate buffers. Conclusions: We observed a time-dependent decrease of viability in both HCLE and HCjE cells exposed to higher buffer concentrations. Therefore, we propose further in vivo studies to translate these finding to humans to discern the real effects of the buffer concentration in eye drops on the ocular surface.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels control electrical rhythmicity and excitability in the heart and brain, but the function of HCN channels at subcellular level in axons remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the action potential conduction velocity in both myelinated and unmyelinated central axons can bidirectionally be modulated by HCN channel blockers, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and neuromodulators. Recordings from mice cerebellar mossy fiber boutons show that HCN channels ensure reliable high-frequency firing and are strongly modulated by cAMP (EC50 40 µM; estimated endogenous cAMP concentration 13 µM). In accord, immunogold-electron microscopy revealed HCN2 as the dominating subunit in cerebellar mossy fibers. Computational modeling indicated that HCN2 channels control conduction velocity primarily via altering the resting membrane potential and was associated with significant metabolic costs. These results suggest that the cAMP-HCN pathway provides neuromodulators an opportunity to finely tune energy consumption and temporal delays across axons in the brain.

The aim of this study was to determine whether infectious dose of Chlamydia caviae after repeated infections influences the immunological responses and subsequent clearance of pathogen at the ocular surface of guinea pigs. Animals were infected three times via the conjunctiva at six- and twelve-week intervals by applying either 1 x 10(4) or 1 x 10(6) inclusion-forming units (IFUs) of C. caviae. Ocular pathology, infection course, C. caviae-specific serum IgG levels and their capacity to bind and neutralize infection ex vivo were assessed. Animals infected with 1 x 10(4) IFUs had completely diminished ocular infection and pathology after the 2nd infection with increased levels of C. caviae-specific serum IgG and their effective capacity to bind and neutralize C. caviae. Only partial protection was observed in animals infected with 1 x 10(6) IFUs after the 2nd and 3rd infections. Our findings show that full protection was observed in animals repeatedly infected with the lower dose. The lower dose appeared not to compromise the host immune system, thereby enabling fast clearance of the pathogen and the establishment of competent neutralizing antibodies. (C) 2015 Institut Pasteur. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Chlamydiae are a group of obligate intracellular bacteria comprising several important human pathogens. Inside the eukaryotic cell, chlamydiae remain within a host-derived vesicular compartment, termed the inclusion. They modify the inclusion membrane through insertion of unique proteins, which are involved in interaction with and manipulation of the host cell. Among chlamydiae, inclusion membrane proteins have been exclusively found in members of the family Chlamydiaceae , which predominantly infect mammalian and avian hosts. Here, the presence of inclusion membrane proteins in Protochlamydia amoebophila UWE25, a chlamydial endosymbiont of free-living amoebae, is reported. A genome-wide screening for secondary structure motifs resulted in the identification of 23 putative inclusion membrane proteins for this organism. Immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated that five of these proteins were expressed, and four of them could be localized to a halo surrounding the intracellular bacteria. Colocalization studies showed an almost complete overlap of the signals obtained for the four putative inclusion membrane proteins, and immuno-transmission electron microscopy unambiguously demonstrated their location in the inclusion membrane. The presence of inclusion membrane proteins (designated IncA, IncQ, IncR, and IncS) in P. amoebophila shows that this strategy for host cell interaction is conserved among the chlamydiae and is used by chlamydial symbionts and pathogens alike.

The phylum Chlamydiae consists exclusively of obligate intracellular bacteria. Some of them are formidable pathogens of humans, while others occur as symbionts of amoebae. These genetically intractable bacteria possess a developmental cycle consisting of replicative reticulate bodies and infectious elementary bodies, which are believed to be physiologically inactive. Confocal Raman microspectroscopy was applied to differentiate between reticulate bodies and elementary bodies of Protochlamydia amoebophila and to demonstrate in situ the labelling of this amoeba symbiont after addition of isotope-labelled phenylalanine. Unexpectedly, uptake of this amino acid was also observed for both developmental stages for up to 3 weeks, if incubated extracellularly with labelled phenylalanine, and P. amoebophila remained infective during this period. Furthermore, P. amoebophila energizes its membrane and performs protein synthesis outside of its host. Importantly, amino acid uptake and protein synthesis after extended extracellular incubation could also be demonstrated for the human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, which synthesizes stress-related proteins under these conditions as shown by 2-D gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry. These findings change our perception of chlamydial biology and reveal that host-free analyses possess a previously not recognized potential for direct experimental access to these elusive microorganisms.

Trachoma, caused by the intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct), remains the world's leading preventable infectious cause of blindness. Recent attempts to develop effective vaccines rely on modified chlamydial antigen delivery platforms. As the mechanisms engaged in the pathology of the disease are not fully understood, designing a subunit vaccine specific to chlamydial antigens could improve safety for human use. We propose the delivery of chlamydia-specific antigens to the ocular mucosa using particulate carriers, bacterial ghosts (BGs). We therefore characterized humoral and cellular immune responses after conjunctival and subcutaneous immunization with a N-terminal portion (amino acid 1-893) of the chlamydial polymorphic membrane protein C (PmpC) of Ct serovar B, expressed in probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 bacterial ghosts (EcN BGs) in BALB/cmice. Three immunizations were performed at two-week intervals, and the immune responses were evaluated two weeks after the final immunization in mice. In a guinea pig model of ocular infection animals were immunized in the same manner as the mice, and protection against challenge was assessed two weeks after the last immunization. N-PmpC was successfully expressed within BGs and delivery to the ocularmucosa was well tolerated without signs of inflammation. N-PmpC- specific mucosal IgA levels in tears yielded significantly increased levels in the group immunized via the conjunctiva compared with the subcutaneously immunized mice. Immunization with N-PmpC EcN BGs via both immunization routes prompted the establishment of an N-PmpC-specific IFN gamma immune response. Immunization via the conjunctiva resulted in a decrease in intensity of the transitional inflammatory reaction in conjunctiva of challenged guinea pigs compared with subcutaneously and non-immunized animals. The delivery of the chlamydial subunit vaccine to the ocular mucosa using a particulate carrier, such as BGs, induced both humoral and cellular immune responses. Further investigations are needed to improve the immunization scheme and dosage.

Background: In a quest for a needle-free vaccine administration strategy, we evaluated the ocular conjunctiva as an alternative mucosal immunization route by profiling and comparing the local and systemic immune responses to the subcutaneous or conjunctival administration of tetanus toxoid (TTd), a model antigen. Materials and methods: BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were immunized either subcutaneously with TTd alone or via the conjunctiva with TTd alone, TTd mixed with 2% glycerol or TTd with merthiolate-inactivated whole-cell B. pertussis (wBP) as adjuvants. Mice were immunized on days 0, 7 and 14 via both routes, and an evaluation of the local and systemic immune responses was performed two weeks after the last immunization. Four weeks after the last immunization, the mice were challenged with a lethal dose (2 x LD50) of tetanus toxin. Results: The conjunctival application of TTd in BALB/c mice induced TTd-specific secretory IgA production and skewed the TTd-specific immune response toward a Th1/Th17 profile, as determined by the stimulation of IFN gamma and IL-17A secretion and/or the concurrent pronounced reduction of IL-4 secretion, irrespective of the adjuvant. In conjunctivaly immunized C57BL/6 mice, only TTd administered with wBP promoted the establishment of a mixed Th1/Th17 TTd-specific immune response, whereas TTd alone or TTd in conjunction with glycerol initiated a dominant Th1 response against TTd. Immunization via the conjunctiva with TTd plus wBP adjuvant resulted in a 33% survival rate of challenged mice compared to a 0% survival rate in non-immunized animals (p lt 0.05). Conclusion: Conjunctival immunization with TTd alone or with various adjuvants induced TTd-specific local and systemic immune responses, predominantly of the Th1 type. The strongest immune responses developed in mice that received TTd together with wBP, which implies that this alternative route might tailor the immune response to fight intracellular bacteria or viruses more effectively.

The Chlamydiae constitute an evolutionary well separated group of intracellular bacteria comprising important pathogens of humans as well as symbionts of protozoa. The amoeba symbiont Protochlamydia amoebophila lacks a homologue of the most abundant outer membrane protein of the Chlamydiaceae, the major outer membrane protein MOMP, highlighting a major difference between environmental chlamydiae and their pathogenic counterparts. We recently identified a novel family of putative porins encoded in the genome of P. amoebophila by in silico analysis. Two of these Protochlamydia outer membrane proteins, PomS (pc1489) and PomT (pc1077), are highly abundant in outer membrane preparations of this organism. Here we show that all four members of this putative porin family are toxic when expressed in the heterologous host Escherichia coli. Immunofluorescence analysis using antibodies against heterologously expressed PomT and PomS purified directly from elementary bodies, respectively, demonstrated the location of both proteins in the outer membrane of P. amoebophila. The location of the most abundant protein PomS was further confirmed by immuno-transmission electron microscopy. We could show that pomS is transcribed, and the corresponding protein is present in the outer membrane throughout the complete developmental cycle, suggesting an essential role for P. amoebophila. Lipid bilayer measurements demonstrated that PomS functions as a porin with anion-selectivity and a pore size similar to the Chlamydiaceae MOMP. Taken together, our results suggest that PomS, possibly in concert with PomT and other members of this porin family, is the functional equivalent of MOMP in P. amoebophila. This work contributes to our understanding of the adaptations of symbiotic and pathogenic chlamydiae to their different eukaryotic hosts.

Purpose There is an excessive demand to develop vaccines against many of the pathogens that infect mucosal tissues or have a mucosal port of entry. Parenteral vaccination may protect in some instances, but usually a mucosal vaccination route is of vital importance as the strongest immune response is obtained at the site of vaccine application and in anatomically adjacent mucosae. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue (CALT) as a mucosal route of immunization. Methods BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were immunized via conjunctiva with tetanus toxoid (TTd) as a model antigen. 100 μg/mouse of TTd was applied onto conjunctiva of each eye, together with merthiolate-inactivated B. pertussis, which served as adjuvant. Control mice were immunized subcutaneously with 100 μg/mouse of TTd. Results We found TTd-specific IgG and IgA in tears and sera of both mice strains, in addition to IgG positive TTd-specific cells. There was strong correlation between the amount of TTd-specific antibodies in sera and the presence of TTd-specific B cells in draining lymph nodes. B. pertussis enhanced IgG and IgA immune responses in both mouse strains. T cell activation (increase in CD25 expression and in percentages of CD4+, CD8+, and CD3+ cells) and B cell activation (increase in percentages of CD19+ CD25+ cells) occurred in all mice, but mice immunized with TTd in combination with B. pertussis had the strongest responses. Conclusion Immunization via conjunctiva induced TTd-specific local and systemic immune responses. The strongest immune responses developed in mice that received TTd together with B. pertussis.

Chlamydiae belong to the most successful intracellular bacterial pathogens. They display a complex developmental cycle and an extremely broad host spectrum ranging from vertebrates to protozoa. The family Chlamydiaceae comprises exclusively well-known pathogens of humans and animals, whereas the members of its sister group, the Parachlamydiaceae, naturally occur as symbionts of free-living amoebae. Comparative analysis of these two groups provides valuable insights into chlamydial evolution and mechanisms for microbe-host interaction. Based on the complete genome sequence of the Acanthamoeba spp. symbiont Protochlamydia amoebophila UWE25, we performed the first detailed proteome analysis of the infectious stage of a symbiotic chlamydia. A 2-D reference proteome map was established and the analysis was extensively complemented by shotgun proteomics. In total, 472 proteins were identified, which represent 23.2% of all encoded proteins. These cover a wide range of functional categories, including typical house-keeping proteins, but also putative virulence-associated proteins. A number of proteins that are not encoded in genomes of Chlamydiaceae were observed and the expression of 162 proteins classified as hypothetical or unknown proteins could be demonstrated. Our findings indicate that P. amoebophila exploits its additional genetic repertoire (compared with the Chlamydiaceae), and that its elementary bodies are remarkably well equipped with proteins involved in transcription, translation, and energy generation.

The phylum Chlamydiae consists exclusively of obligate intracellular bacteria. Some of them are formidable pathogens of humans, while others occur as symbionts of amoebae. These genetically intractable bacteria possess a developmental cycle consisting of replicative reticulate bodies and infectious elementary bodies, which are believed to be physiologically inactive. Confocal Raman microspectroscopy was applied to differentiate between reticulate bodies and elementary bodies of Protochlamydia amoebophila and to demonstrate in situ the labelling of this amoeba symbiont after addition of isotope-labelled phenylalanine. Unexpectedly, uptake of this amino acid was also observed for both developmental stages for up to 3 weeks, if incubated extracellularly with labelled phenylalanine, and P. amoebophila remained infective during this period. Furthermore, P. amoebophila energizes its membrane and performs protein synthesis outside of its host. Importantly, amino acid uptake and protein synthesis after extended extracellular incubation could also be demonstrated for the human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, which synthesizes stress-related proteins under these conditions as shown by 2-D gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry. These findings change our perception of chlamydial biology and reveal that host-free analyses possess a previously not recognized potential for direct experimental access to these elusive microorganisms.

Protozoa play host for many intracellular bacteria and are important for the adaptation of pathogenic bacteria to eukaryotic cells. We analyzed the genome sequence of “ Candidatus Amoebophilus asiaticus,” an obligate intracellular amoeba symbiont belonging to the Bacteroidetes . The genome has a size of 1.89 Mbp, encodes 1,557 proteins, and shows massive proliferation of IS elements (24% of all genes), although the genome seems to be evolutionarily relatively stable. The genome does not encode pathways for de novo biosynthesis of cofactors, nucleotides, and almost all amino acids. “ Ca . Amoebophilus asiaticus” encodes a variety of proteins with predicted importance for host cell interaction; in particular, an arsenal of proteins with eukaryotic domains, including ankyrin-, TPR/SEL1-, and leucine-rich repeats, which is hitherto unmatched among prokaryotes, is remarkable. Unexpectedly, 26 proteins that can interfere with the host ubiquitin system were identified in the genome. These proteins include F- and U-box domain proteins and two ubiquitin-specific proteases of the CA clan C19 family, representing the first prokaryotic members of this protein family. Consequently, interference with the host ubiquitin system is an important host cell interaction mechanism of “ Ca . Amoebophilus asiaticus”. More generally, we show that the eukaryotic domains identified in “ Ca . Amoebophilus asiaticus” are also significantly enriched in the genomes of other amoeba-associated bacteria (including chlamydiae, Legionella pneumophila , Rickettsia bellii , Francisella tularensis , and Mycobacterium avium ). This indicates that phylogenetically and ecologically diverse bacteria which thrive inside amoebae exploit common mechanisms for interaction with their hosts, and it provides further evidence for the role of amoebae as training grounds for bacterial pathogens of humans.

Jacqueline Montanaro,1 Aleksandra Inic-Kanada,1 Angela Ladurner,1 Elisabeth Stein,1 SandraBelij,1 Nora Bintner,1 Simone Schlacher,1 Nadine Schuerer,1 Ulrike Beate Mayr,2 WernerLubitz,2 Nikolaus Leisch,3 Talin Barisani-Asenbauer11Laura Bassi Centres of Expertise, OCUVAC – Centre of Ocular Inflammation and Infection, Centre for Pathophysiology, Infectiology, and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; 2BIRD-C GmbH & Co KG, Kritzendorf, Austria; 3Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaAbstract: To target chronic inflammatory ocular surface diseases, a drug delivery platform is needed that is safe, possesses immunomodulatory properties, and can be used either for drug delivery, or as a foreign antigen carrier. A new therapeutic approach that we have previously proposed uses nonliving bacterial ghosts (BGs) as a carrier-delivery system which can be engineered to carry foreign antigens and/or be loaded with therapeutic drugs. The parent strain chosen for development of our BG delivery system is the probiotic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917 (EcN), whose intrinsic properties trigger the innate immune system with the flagella and fimbriae used to attach and stimulate epithelial cells. In previous studies, we have shown that EcN BGs are safe for the ocular surface route, but evidence that EcN BGs retain flagella and fimbriae after transformation, has never been visually confirmed. In this study, we used different visualization techniques to determine whether flagella and fimbriae are retained on EcN BGs engineered either for drug delivery or as a foreign antigen carrier. We have also shown by immunoelectron microscopy that EcN retains two foreign antigens after processing to become EcN BGs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that BGs derived from EcN and expressing a foreign antigen attachment to conjunctival epithelial cells in vitro without causing reduced cell viability. These results are an important step in constructing a delivery system based on a nonliving probiotic that is suitable for use in ocular surface diseases pairing immunomodulation and targeted delivery.Keywords: delivery system, flagella, fimbriae, foreign antigen, electron microscopy, epithelial cells

Between 1983 and 1991, 16 cases of herpes simplex encephalitis were diagnosed at the Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne by virus isolation from the brain or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (2 cases), by detection of herpes simplex virus-specific IgM, IgA or IgG by enzyme immunoassay (12 cases) or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and herpes simplex virus-specific antibodies (2 cases). Specific antibody was detected in 4 of 13 CSF samples taken on Days 1 to 4 after onset of neurologic symptoms compared with 15 of 17 samples taken after the fourth day of illness. PCR was retrospectively applied to 20 stored CSF samples from 11 patients; 5 of 8 samples taken less than 4 days after onset of symptoms were positive compared with 2 of 12 taken after Day 4. In contrast all 5 fresh unfrozen CSF samples taken from Days 2 to 21 were positive by PCR. These results indicate that PCR is more sensitive for early diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis than detection of specific antibody in CSF which is most useful after the fourth day of illness.