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© The Author(s), 2020. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Barker, L. D. L., Jakuba, M., V., Bowen, A. D., German, C. R., Maksym, T., Mayer, L., Boetius, A., Dutrieux, P., & Whitcomb, L. L. Scientific challenges and present capabilities in underwater robotic vehicle design and navigation for oceanographic exploration under-ice. Remote Sensing, 12(16), (2020): 2588, doi:10.3390/rs12162588., This paper reviews the scientific motivation and challenges, development, and use of underwater robotic vehicles designed for use in ice-covered waters, with special attention paid to the navigation systems employed for under-ice deployments. Scientific needs for routine access under fixed and moving ice by underwater robotic vehicles are reviewed in the contexts of geology and geophysics, biology, sea ice and climate, ice shelves, and seafloor mapping. The challenges of under-ice vehicle design and navigation are summarized. The paper reviews all known under-ice robotic vehicles and their associated navigation systems, categorizing them by vehicle type (tethered, untethered, hybrid, and glider) and by the type of ice they were designed for (fixed glacial or sea ice and moving sea ice)., Barker and Whitcomb gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation under Award 1319667 and 1909182, and support of the first author under a Graduate Fellowship from the Johns Hopkins Department of Mechanical Engineering. Jakuba, Bowen, and German gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Planetary Science and Technology through Analog Research (PSTAR) award NNX16AL04G. Maksym was supported by National Science Foundation Award CMMI-1839063. Dutrieux was supported by his Center for Climate and Life Fellowship from the Earth Institute of Columbia University. Boetius acknowledges funding from the Helmholtz Association for the FRAM infrastructure, and from her ERC Adv. Grant ABYSS (294757). Mayer’s work is supported by NOAA Grant NA15NOS4000200.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution September 2020., Advances in the miniaturization of microelectronics has greatly contributed to the proliferation of small, low cost autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). These affordable vehicles offer organizations a flexible platform that can be adapted to support a multitude of research goals. The small size and low entry cost come with a trade off of simple navigation systems, typically dead reckoning (DR) using a speed determined via propeller counts and heading from a low cost micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) inertial measurement unit (IMU), whose error grows unbounded without the availability of a ground referenced fix source and is compounded by the bias present in the speed measurement due to the change in hydrodynamics from the addition of sensors to the hull form. Additionally, some capabilities such as water current velocity measurement traditionally requires the addition of equipment that is not only expensive, but also whose size and power consumption can adversely affect operating characteristics and deployment times. This thesis expands on previous research using one-way travel time inverted USBL (OWTT-iUSBL) to calculate the local current velocity without the addition of a Doppler velocity log (DVL) or acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP). A novel extended Kalman filter (EKF) is proposed that, in addition to calculating the current velocity, estimates and corrects for the bias present in the speed measurement as determined by the main vehicle computer. Using data collected on the Charles River at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Sailing Pavilion, it is shown that current velocities can be reasonably calculated using OWTT-iUSBL data as compared to the values calculated using long baseline (LBL) data., Funding for this thesis research was provided the US Navy Civilian Institutions Office through the Massachusetts Institute of Technology/Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Joint Program.

This paper reviews the scientific motivation and challenges, development, and use of underwater robotic vehicles designed for use in ice-covered waters, with special attention paid to the navigation systems employed for under-ice deployments. Scientific needs for routine access under fixed and moving ice by underwater robotic vehicles are reviewed in the contexts of geology and geophysics, biology, sea ice and climate, ice shelves, and seafloor mapping. The challenges of under-ice vehicle design and navigation are summarized. The paper reviews all known under-ice robotic vehicles and their associated navigation systems, categorizing them by vehicle type (tethered, untethered, hybrid, and glider) and by the type of ice they were designed for (fixed glacial or sea ice and moving sea ice). © 2020 by the authors.

Workshop held 28-29 September 2017, Cape Cod, MA, A two-day workshop was conducted to trade ideas and brainstorm about how to advance our understanding of the ocean’s biological pump. The goal was to identify the most important scientific issues that are unresolved but might be addressed with new and future technological advances.

© The Author(s), 2015. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 120 (2015): 5932–5944, doi:10.1002/2015JC010914., The observed changes in physical properties of sea ice such as decreased thickness and increased melt pond cover severely impact the energy budget of Arctic sea ice. Increased light transmission leads to increased deposition of solar energy in the upper ocean and thus plays a crucial role for amount and timing of sea-ice-melt and under-ice primary production. Recent developments in underwater technology provide new opportunities to study light transmission below the largely inaccessible underside of sea ice. We measured spectral under-ice radiance and irradiance using the new Nereid Under-Ice (NUI) underwater robotic vehicle, during a cruise of the R/V Polarstern to 83°N 6°W in the Arctic Ocean in July 2014. NUI is a next generation hybrid remotely operated vehicle (H-ROV) designed for both remotely piloted and autonomous surveys underneath land-fast and moving sea ice. Here we present results from one of the first comprehensive scientific dives of NUI employing its interdisciplinary sensor suite. We combine under-ice optical measurements with three dimensional under-ice topography (multibeam sonar) and aerial images of the surface conditions. We investigate the influence of spatially varying ice-thickness and surface properties on the spatial variability of light transmittance during summer. Our results show that surface properties such as melt ponds dominate the spatial distribution of the under-ice light field on small scales (<1000 m2), while sea ice-thickness is the most important predictor for light transmission on larger scales. In addition, we propose the use of an algorithm to obtain histograms of light transmission from distributions of sea ice thickness and surface albedo., U.S. National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs NSF OPP ANT-1126311, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Exploration and Research NOAA OER NA14OAR4320158, European Research Council Advanced Investigator Grant Number: 294757

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2011. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Elsevier B.V. for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Robotics and Autonomous Systems 59 (2011): 988–1000, doi:10.1016/j.robot.2011.06.007., In this paper we address the problem of autonomously localizing multiple gas/odor sources in an indoor environment without a strong airflow. To do this, a robot iteratively creates an occupancy grid map. The produced map shows the probability each discrete cell contains a source. Our approach is based on a recent adaptation [15] to traditional Bayesian occupancy grid mapping for chemical source localization problems. The approach is less sensitive, in the considered scenario, to the choice of the algorithm parameters. We present experimental results with a robot in an indoor uncontrolled corridor in the presence of different ejecting sources proving the method is able to build reliable maps quickly (5.5 minutes in a 6 m x 2.1 m area) and in real time.

This paper reports the results of sea trials of the Nereus hybrid underwater robotic vehicle (HROV) conducted in May and June 2009 in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, where the vehicle successfully performed scientific observation and sampling operations at hadal depths of 10,903 m. The Nereus underwater vehicle is designed to perform scientific survey and sampling to the full depth of the ocean - significantly deeper than the depth capability of all other present-day operational vehicles. For comparison, the second deepest underwater vehicle currently operational worldwide can dive to 7,000 m maximum depth. Nereus operates in two different modes. For broad-area survey, the vehicle can operate untethered as an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) capable of exploring and mapping the sea floor with sonars and cameras. Nereus can be converted at sea to become a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to enable close-up imaging and sampling. The ROV configuration incorporates a lightweight fiber-optic tether for high-bandwidth, real-time video and data telemetry to the surface enabling highquality teleoperation. A manipulator, lightweight hydraulic power unit, and sampling instruments are added to provide sampling capabilities. This paper reports a brief overview of the Nereus vehicle design, and reviews the initial results of the eight dives conducted on this expedition, including two dives to more than 10,900 m depth. The Nereus vehicle is designed to render all parts of the Earth's seafloor reachable and the sea trials of its fullocean depth capability in May and June 2009 were successful., See also ADM202806. Proceedings of the Oceans 2009 MTS/IEEE Conference held in Biloxi, Mississippi on 26-29 October 2009. U.S. Government or Federal Purpose Rights License. The original document contains color images.

Author Posting. © The Authors, 2010. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of National Academy of Sciences for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (2010): 14020-14025, doi:10.1073/pnas.1009205107., Thirty years after the first discovery of high-temperature submarine venting, the vast majority of the global Mid Ocean Ridge remains unexplored for hydrothermal activity. Of particular interest are the world’s ultra-slow spreading ridges which were the last to be demonstrated to host high-temperature venting, but may host systems particularly relevant to pre-biotic chemistry and the origins of life. Here we report first evidence for diverse and very deep hydrothermal vents along the ~110 km long, ultra-slow spreading Mid-Cayman Rise. Our data indicate that the Mid- Cayman Rise hosts at least three discrete hydrothermal sites, each representing a different type of water-rock interaction, including both mafic and ultra-mafic systems and, at ~5000 m, the deepest known hydrothermal vent. Although submarine hydrothermal circulation, in which seawater percolates through and reacts with host lithologies, occurs on all mid-ocean ridges, the diversity of vent-types identified here and their relative geographic isolation make the Mid-Cayman Rise unique in the oceans. These new sites offer prospects for: an expanded range of vent-fluid compositions; varieties of abiotic organic chemical synthesis and extremophile microorganisms; and unparalleled faunal biodiversity - all in close proximity., This research was funded through NASA (ASTEP) and WHOI (Ocean Ridge Initiative).

Author Posting. © Nature Publishing Group, 2008. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Nature Publishing Group for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Nature 453 (2008): 1236-1238, doi:10.1038/nature07075., Roughly 60% of the Earth’s outer surface is comprised of oceanic crust formed by volcanic processes at mid-ocean ridges (MORs). Although only a small fraction of this vast volcanic terrain has been visually surveyed and/or sampled, the available evidence suggests that explosive eruptions are rare on MORs, particularly at depths below the critical point for steam (3000 m). A pyroclastic deposit has never been observed on the seafloor below 3000 m, presumably because the volatile content of mid-ocean ridge basalts is generally too low to produce the gas fractions required to fragment a magma at such high hydrostatic pressure. We employed new deep submergence technologies during an International Polar Year expedition to the Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Basin at 85°E, to acquire the first-ever photographic images of ‘zero-age’ volcanic terrain on this remote, ice-covered MOR. Our imagery reveals that the axial valley at 4000 m water depth is blanketed with unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits, including bubble wall fragments (limu o Pele), covering a large area greater than 10 km2. At least 13.5 wt% CO2 is required to fragment magma at these depths, which is ~10x greater than the highest values measured to-date in a MOR basalt. These observations raise important questions regarding the accumulation and discharge of magmatic volatiles at ultra-slow spreading rates on the Gakkel Ridge (6- 14 mm yr-1, full-rate), and demonstrate that large-scale pyroclastic activity is possible along even the deepest portions of the global MOR volcanic system., This research was funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2009. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of John Wiley & Sons for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Field Robotics 26 (2009): 411-429, doi:10.1002/rob.20288., This paper describes the design and use of two new autonomous underwater vehicles, Jaguar and Puma, which were deployed in the summer of 2007 at sites at 85°N latitude in the ice-covered Arctic Ocean to search for hydrothermal vents. These robots are the first to be deployed and recovered through ice to the deep ocean (> 3500m) for scientific research. We examine the mechanical design, software architecture, navigation considerations, sensor suite and issues with deployment and recovery in the ice based on the missions they carried out. Successful recoveries of vehicles deployed under the ice requires two-way acoustic communication, flexible navigation strategies, redundant localization hardware, and software that can cope with several different kinds of failure. The ability to direct an AUV via the low bandwidth and intermittently functional acoustic channel, is of particular importance. Based on our experiences, we also discuss the applicability of the technology and operational approaches of this expedition to the exploration of Jupiter's ice-covered moon Europa., This work was made possible in part through NSF OPP grant OPP-0425838, through the NASA ASTEP program through grant Z601701, through NSF Censsis ERC through grant EEC-9986821 and through funding from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

Author Posting. © Oceanography Society, 2007. This article is posted here by permission of Oceanography Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Oceanography 20, 1 (2007): 152-161., Autonomous and remotely operated underwater vehicles play complementary roles in the discovery, exploration, and detailed study of hydrothermal vents. Beginning with clues provided by towed or lowered instruments, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) can localize and make preliminary photographic surveys of vent fields. In addition to finding and photographing such sites, AUVs excel at providing regional context through fine-scale bathymetric and magnetic field mapping. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) enable close-up inspection, photomosaicking, and tasks involving manipulation of samples and instruments. Increasingly, ROVs are used to conduct in situ seafloor experiments. ROVs can also be used for fine-scale bathymetric mapping with excellent results, although AUVs are usually more efficient in such tasks.

Author Posting. © Oceanography Society, 2007. This article is posted here by permission of Oceanography Society for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Oceanography 20, 4 (2007): 52-61., Human-occupied submersibles, towed vehicles, and tethered remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) have traditionally been used to study the deep seafloor. In recent years, however, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) have begun to replace these other vehicles for mapping and survey missions. AUVs complement the capabilities of these pre-existing systems, offering superior mapping capabilities, improved logistics, and better utilization of the surface support vessel by allowing other tasks such as submersible operations, ROV work, CTD stations, or multibeam surveys to be performed while the AUV does its work. AUVs are particularly well suited to systematic preplanned surveys using sonars, in situ chemical sensors, and cameras in the rugged deep-sea terrain that has been the focus of numerous scientific expeditions (e.g., those to mid-ocean ridges and ocean margin settings). The Autonomous Benthic Explorer (ABE) is an example of an AUV that has been used for over 20 cruises sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Office of Ocean Exploration (OE), and international and private sources. This paper summarizes NOAA OE-sponsored cruises made to date using ABE.

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2008. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of John Wiley & Sons for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Field Robotics 25 (2008): 861-879, doi:10.1002/rob.20250., The recent Arctic GAkkel Vents Expedition (AGAVE) to the Arctic Ocean’s Gakkel Ridge (July/August 2007) aboard the Swedish ice-breaker I/B Oden employed autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) for water-column and ocean bottom surveys. These surveys were unique among AUV operations to date in requiring georeferenced navigation in proximity to the seafloor beneath permanent and moving ice cover. We report results for long-baseline (LBL) acoustic navigation during autonomous under-ice surveys near the seafloor and adaptation of the LBL concept for several typical operational situations including navigation in proximity to the ship during vehicle recoveries. Fixed seafloor transponders were free-fall deployed from the ship for deep positioning. The ship’s helicopter collected acoustic travel times from several locations to geo-reference the transponders’ locations, subject to the availability of openings in the ice. Two shallow beacons suspended from the ship provided near-surface spherical navigation in ship-relative coordinates. During routine recoveries, we used this system to navigate the vehicles into open water near the ship before commanding them to surface. In cases where a vehicle was impaired, its position was still determined acoustically through some combination of its acoustic modem, the fixed seafloor transponders, the ship-deployed transponders, and an on-board backup relay transponder. The techniques employed included ranging adapted for a moving origin and hyperbolic navigation., Major funding for AGAVE was provided by the National Science Foundation (PP-0425838, ATM- 0428122), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Z601701), and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

This paper reports an overview of the new Nereus hybrid underwater vehicle and summarizes the vehicle's performance during its first sea trials in November 2007. Nereus is a novel operational underwater vehicle designed to perform scientific survey and sampling to the full depth of the ocean of 11,000 meters -- almost twice the depth of any present-day operational vehicle. Nereus operates in two different modes. For broad area survey, the vehicle can operate untethered as an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) capable of exploring and mapping the sea floor with sonars and cameras. For close up imaging and sampling, Nereus can be converted at sea to operate as a tethered remotely operated vehicle (ROV). This paper reports the overall vehicle design and design elements including ceramic pressure housings and flotation spheres; manipulator and sampling system; light fiber optic tether; lighting and imaging; power and propulsion; navigation; vehicle dynamics and control; and acoustic communications., Presented at the IEEE/MTS Oceans Conference held in Quebec City, Canada on 15-18 Sep 2008. Published in the Proceedings of the IEEE/MTS Oceans Conference, 2008. Sponsored in part by NSF and NOAA. The original document contains color images.

The recent Arctic GAkkel Vents Expedition (AGAVE) to the Arctic Ocean’s Gakkel Ridge (July/August 2007) aboard the Swedish ice-breaker I/B Oden employed autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) for water-column and ocean bottom surveys. These surveys were unique among AUV operations to date in requiring georeferenced navigation in proximity to the seafloor beneath permanent and moving ice cover. We report results for long-baseline (LBL) acoustic navigation during autonomous under-ice surveys near the seafloor and adaptation of the LBL concept for several typical operational situations including navigation in proximity to the ship during vehicle recoveries. Fixed seafloor transponders were free-fall deployed from the ship for deep positioning. The ship’s helicopter collected acoustic travel times from several locations to geo-reference the transponders’ locations, subject to the availability of openings in the ice. Two shallow beacons suspended from the ship provided near-surface spherical navigation in ship-relative coordinates. During routine recoveries, we used this system to navigate the vehicles into open water near the ship before commanding them to surface. In cases where a vehicle was impaired, its position was still determined acoustically through some combination of its acoustic modem, the fixed seafloor transponders, the ship-deployed transponders, and an on-board backup relay transponder. The techniques employed included ranging adapted for a moving origin and hyperbolic navigation.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution February 2003, The Sentry AUV represents a radical departure from conventional AUV design, particularly with respect to actuation. The vehicle's combined foil/thruster actuators have the potential to produce a vehicle both maneuverable in the veritical plane and efficient in forward flight, well suited to survey work over rough topography. Capitalizing on this; however, requires an understanding of the vehicles dynamics. In this work, we present the development and analysis of an analytic model of the Sentry AUV. Our goals were to develop a model sufficiently accurate in terms of the mission profile to identify critical vehicle behaviors influencing successful mission completion. The analytical vehicle model was developed with structural accuracy in mind, and under the requirement that it handle a large range of vertical plane velocities, Our primary methodology for analysis was through the design of a linear controller, whose behavior was investigated in simulation and as implemented on a 1/4-scale physical model. Based on decoupled linearized models for near-horizontal flight derived from the full non-linear model, classical linear controllers were designed and validated by simulation and implementation on the physical model. Closed loop simulations conducted at high angle of attack verified the vehicle's predicted maneuverability in the vertical plane. Ultimately we determined the vehicle's input structure limited the achievable performance of a classical linear controller.