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The pour-through (PT) method is used in greenhouse and nursery production to monitor nutrient availability in soilless substrates. Efficacy of this method is based on the assumption that chemical properties of extracted solutions remain stable from the moment of collection until analysis. Extracted substrate solution can be analyzed directly in the greenhouse or sent to laboratories for complete nutritional analysis; thus, proper sample preservation methods (e.g., filtration and low temperatures) are critical for reducing sample contamination or degradation during storage. However, evidence of how these preservation methods affect chemical characteristics of PT samples is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of storage time, storage temperature, and filtration of PT samples on pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrient concentrations from pine bark– and peat-based substrates. PT extracts were obtained from liquid-fertilized fallow pots of either 100% milled pine bark (Expt. 1) or a 4 sphagnum peat: 1 perlite (by volume) substrate (Expt. 2). Aliquots of PT extract were either filtered or nonfiltered and then stored in plastic bottles at −22, 4, or 20 °C. EC, pH, and nutrient concentrations were analyzed at 0, 1, 7, and 30 days after PT sample collection. EC and pH in PT extracts of peat and pine bark, respectively, changed 1 day after collection. Storage time had the greatest effect on nutrient concentrations of samples stored at 20 °C. However, at day 30, nutrient concentrations had also changed in samples stored at 4 and −22 °C. Analytes that fluctuated most in both experiments and across all preservation treatments were dissolved organic carbon, total dissolved nitrogen, NO3−-N, and PO43−-P, whereas Ca2+, Mg2+, and SO42−-S were more stable in PT samples. This research suggests EC and pH should be analyzed immediately, whereas samples requiring nutrient analysis should be filtered immediately after collection, stored at 4 or −22 °C (preferably −22 °C), and analyzed within 7 days of collection.

Yield reduction resulting from high temperatures and tipburn are common issues during the summer for hydroponically grown lettuce using the nutrient–film technique (NFT). We investigated the yield and degree of tipburn of lettuce ‘Red Butter’, ‘Green Butter’, and ‘Red Oakleaf’ of the Salanova® series under different-solution electrical conductivity (EC) and pH levels. We also quantified the effect of foliar spray application of calcium chloride (CaCl2) on the yield and degree of tipburn using the lettuce cultivar Green Butter. For the EC experiment, the plants were grown at four EC levels (1.4, 1.6, 1.8, or 2.0 mS·cm–1) and a constant pH of 5.8. For the pH experiment, the plants were grown at and four pH levels (5.8, 6.0, 6.2, or 6.4) and a constant EC of 1.8 mS·cm–1. For the foliar spray experiment, CaCl2 was applied 1 week after transplanting into NFT channels at three different concentrations: 0, 200, 400, or 800 mg·L calcium (Ca). During the EC trial, the maximum yields were observed at or more than 1.8 mS·cm–1 for ‘Green Butter’ (263 ± 14 g/head) and ‘Red Butter’ (202 ± 8 g), and more than 1.6 mS·cm–1 for ‘Red Oakleaf’ (183 ± 6 g). The yield of ‘Green Butter’ was 75 g less at 1.4 mS·cm–1 compared with 1.8 mS·cm–1. Tipburn symptoms were less at 1.4 mS·cm–1 for ‘Green Butter’ whereas other cultivars were not highly susceptible. In pH trials, the maximum yield for all cultivars was found at pH 6.0 and 6.2. There were no differences in tipburn symptoms among all pH levels. The foliar spray treatment, twice a week at 400 or 800 mg·L–1 Ca, provided improved tipburn control, as the tipburn symptoms were minimal and the impact on yield was minor compared with reducing EC. This series of experiments found evidence in proper EC and pH management for optimum yield and tipburn control in NFT lettuce grown in summer conditions.

Soilless substrates are routinely amended with dolomite and sulfate-based micronutrients to improve fertility, but the effect of these amendments on phosphorous (P) in substrate pore-water during containerized crop production is poorly understood. The objectives of this research were as follows: compare the effects of dolomite and sulfate-based micronutrient amendments on total P (TP), total dissolved P (TDP), orthophosphate P (OP), and particulate P (PP; TP − TDP) concentrations in pour-through extracts; to model saturated solid phases in substrate pore-water using Visual MINTEQ; and to assess the effects of dolomite and micronutrient amendments on growth and subsequent P uptake efficiency (PUE) of Lagerstroemia L. ‘Natchez’ (crape myrtle) potted in pine bark. Containerized crape myrtle were grown in a greenhouse for 93 days in a 100% pine bark substrate containing a polymer-coated 19N–2.6P–10.8K controlled-release fertilizer (CRF) and one of four substrate amendment treatments: no dolomite or micronutrients (control), 2.97 kg·m−3 dolomite (FL); 0.89 kg·m−3 micronutrients (FM); or both dolomite and micronutrients (FLM). Pour-through extracts were collected approximately weekly and fractioned to measure pore-water TP, TDP, and OP and to calculate PP. Particulate P concentrations in pour-through extracts were generally unaffected by amendments. Relative to the control, amending pine bark with FLM reduced water-extractable OP, TDP, and TP concentrations by ≈56%, had no effect on P uptake efficiency, and resulted in 34% higher total dry weight (TDW) of crape myrtle. The FM substrate had effects similar to those of FLM on plant TDW and PUE, and FM reduced pore-water OP, TDP, and TP concentrations by 32% to 36% compared with the control. Crape myrtle grown in FL had 28% lower TDW but pour-through OP, TDP, and TP concentrations were similar to those of the control. Chemical conditions in FLM were favorable for precipitation of manganese hydrogen phosphate (MnHPO4), which may have contributed to lower water-extractable P concentrations in this treatment. This research suggests that amending pine bark substrate with dolomite and a sulfate-based micronutrient fertilizer should be considered a best management practice for nursery crop production.

Developing management practices that make more efficient use of irrigation is important for improving the sustainability of nursery crop production. Integrating refined irrigation scheduling with a substrate amendment like biochar can improve irrigation efficiency. The objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of biochar and need-based irrigation scheduling on gas exchange, plant water relations, and biomass gain of container-grown Hydrangea paniculata ‘Silver Dollar’ with the goal of reducing water use and maintaining or shortening production cycles. Containers were filled with pine bark and amended with either 10% or 25% by volume of hardwood biochar. Plants were automatically irrigated by one of the three irrigation schedules. The irrigation schedules were conventional irrigation, delivering 1.8 cm of water in one event each day, and two on-demand, need-based irrigation schedules. The first was based on the moisture characteristic curve for each of the three substrates developed via the evaporative method. The second was a plant physiology-based irrigation scheduling regime built on the relationship between photosynthesis and substrate moisture content. Scheduling irrigation using a plant physiology or substrate physical properties basis, in combination with biochar, reduced the water requirement for ‘Silver Dollar’ hydrangea without any negative effect on plant dry weight by maintaining sufficient plant water status and gas exchange even just prior to irrigation. Automated irrigation systems coupled with a plant physiology or substrate-based actuation and a water retentive substrate amendment have the potential to reduce nursery crops water use.

Tatarian dogwood (Cornus alba) is an ornamental shrub with white fruits, creamy-white flowers, and red stems in fall through late winter and is widely used in residential landscape, public parks, and botanical gardens. Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to characterize the survival, morphological, aesthetic, and physiological responses of tatarian dogwood seedlings to salinity and drought stresses. In Expt. 1, tatarian dogwood seedlings grown in three soilless growing substrates (Metro-Mix 360, 560, and 902) were irrigated with a nutrient solution at an electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.2 dS·m−1 (control) or saline solution (by adding calculated amount of sodium chloride and calcium chloride) at an EC of 5.0 or 10.0 dS·m−1 once per week for 8 weeks. Results showed that substrate did not influence the growth of tatarian dogwood seedling. All plants irrigated with saline solutions at an EC of 10.0 dS·m−1 died, whereas those irrigated with saline solutions at an EC of 5.0 dS·m−1 exhibited severe foliar salt damage with an average visual score of 1.0 (on a scale of 0 to 5, with 0 = dead and 5 = excellent without foliar salt damage). Compared with the control, saline solutions at an EC of 5.0 dS·m−1 reduced plant height and shoot dry weight (DW) by 50.8% and 55.2%, respectively. Relative chlorophyll content [soil plant analysis development (SPAD) reading], chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), and net photosynthesis rate (Pn) also decreased when plants were irrigated with saline solutions at an EC of 5.0 and 10.0 dS·m−1. Leaf sodium (Na+) concentration of tatarian dogwood seedlings irrigated with saline solutions at an EC of 5.0 and 10.0 dS·m−1 increased 11 and 40 times, respectively, compared with the control, whereas chloride (Cl-) concentration increased 25 and 33 times, respectively. In Expt. 2, tatarian dogwood seedlings were irrigated at a substrate volumetric water contents (volume of water/volume of substrate, VWC) of 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, or 45% using a sensor-based automated irrigation system for 60 days. Results showed that drought stress decreased plant growth of tatarian dogwood seedlings with a reduction of 71%, 85%, and 87% in plant height, leaf area, and shoot DW, respectively, when VWC decreased from 45% to 15%, but all plants survived at all VWC treatments. Significant reductions of photosynthesis (Pn), stomatal conductance (gS), transpiration rate (E), and water potential were also found in plants at a VWC of 15%, compared with other VWCs. However, SPAD readings and Fv/Fm of tatarian dogwood seedlings were similar among the VWCs. In conclusion, tatarian dogwood seedlings were sensitive to the salinity levels tested in this study but could survive at all tested substrate volumetric water contents and exhibited resistance to drought conditions.

Environmental horticulture production (EHP) generates and employs approximately one-third of all specialty crop revenue and workforce, respectively. In recent years, however, EHP received only 12% of federal funds earmarked for specialty crops research from the USDA-Agricultural Research Service or the USDA-Specialty Crops Research Initiative. To increase leverage and accumulate more resources for EHP, stakeholder-driven consensus of research priorities needed to be constructed. Therefore, the Horticultural Research Institute led a professionally facilitated stakeholder roundtable discussion to achieve these priorities. Stakeholders identified trends and forces affecting EHP, its current state, a vision, and outcomes needed for success. Through consensus, four equal research priorities were constructed: 1) quantitate and validate the ecosystem services and benefits of plants on human health and wellness, 2) develop innovations in biological, mechanical, and technological systems that provide efficient, productive, and profitable solutions relevant to producer size and segment, 3) evaluate consumer-driven preferences that optimize industry-wide profitability and growth, and 4) solve ongoing and emergent industry challenges. These priorities and the successful future of EHP will be made possible by strong leaders and advocates positioned throughout industry, successfully communicating the human health, social, and economic benefits of plants, state-of-the-art technological and efficiently-designed systems, and an understanding of current and future consumers. Index words: forces, greenhouse, innovation, nursery, roadmap, stakeholders, trends, vision.

Greenhouse propagation of unrooted plant cuttings is characterized by short container cell height and high irrigation frequency. These conditions can result in high moisture level and low air content in soilless container substrates (“substrates”), causing delayed growth of adventitious roots and favoring root disease. The objective of this study was to quantify and compare substrate water and air relations for three propagation substrates (peat, rockwool, and phenolic foam) that varied widely in physical characteristics using four methods: 1) evaporation method with a tensiometer, 2) frozen column method, 3) gravimetric analysis, and 4) X-ray computed tomography (CT) analysis. Moisture retention curves based on evaporation (1) and the frozen column (2) resulted in differences for peat, but similar curves for rockwool and foam. The frozen column method was simple and low cost, but was constrained by column height for peat, which had a higher water potential compared with the other two substrates. Substrate porosity analysis at container capacity by gravimetric or CT methods were similar for volumetric water and air content (VWC and VAC) in rockwool and foam, but differed for peat for VWC and VAC. Gravimetric analysis was simple, rapid, and low cost for whole-cell analysis, but CT further quantified spatial water and air relations within the cell and allowed visualization of complex water and air relations in an image. All substrates had high water content at container capacity ranging from 67% to 91% VWC with 5% to 11% VAC in the short propagation cells, emphasizing the need for careful irrigation management.

Dolomite and a micronutrient fertilizer are routinely incorporated into a pine bark-based soilless substrate when producing containerized nursery crops, yet the effect of these amendments on phosphorus (P) is not well understood. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of dolomite and micronutrient fertilizer amendments on P partitioning among four P fractions (i.e., orthophosphate-P EOM non-orthophosphate dissolved P [NODP], total dissolved P [TDP], and particulate P (PPJ) and to model potential P species in leachate of pine bark substrate. Amendment treatments incorporated into bark at experiment initiation included (1) a control (no fertilizer, dolomite, or micronutrient fertilizer), (2) controlled-release fertilizer (CRF), (3) CRF and dolomite, (4) CRF and micronutrient fertilizer, or (5) CRF, dolomite, and micronutrient fertilizer. Phosphorus fractions in leachate of irrigated pine bark columns were determined at eight sampling times over 48 days. Amending pine bark with dolomite and micronutrient fertilizer reduced leachate OP concentrations by 70% when averaged across sampling dates primarily due to retention of OP in the substrate by dolomite. The NODP fraction was unaffected by amendments, and the response of TDP was similar to that of OP. Particulate P was present throughout the study and was strongly correlated particulate Fe and DOC concentrations. Visual MINTEQ indicated MnHPO4 and Ca-5(PO4)(3)(OH) were consistently saturated with respect to their solid phase in treatments containing CRF. Results of this study suggest amending pine bark with dolomite and micronutrients is a best management practice for reducing P leaching from containerized nurseries. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture [SCRI 2014-51181-22372]; Hatch Program of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture [SCRI 2014-51181-22372]; US Dep. of Agriculture; Horticultural Research Institute; Virginia Nursery and Landscape Association The authors thank Julie Brindley, Velva Groover, Anna Birnbaum, and Doug Sturtz for technical assistance, as well as Pacific Organics for donating pine bark for this research. Funding was provided by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station and the Hatch Program of the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (including SCRI 2014-51181-22372), the US Dep. of Agriculture, the Horticultural Research Institute, and the Virginia Nursery and Landscape Association. Public domain – authored by a U.S. government employee

Preemergence herbicides are applied to container-grown nursery crops repeatedly throughout the year, often in 8 to 10 week intervals. Preemergence herbicide efficacy may decline over time, resulting in reduced weed control several weeks after application if weed seed density remains high. The objective of this research is to evaluate efficacy of preemergence herbicides on creeping woodsorrel (Oxalis corniculata L.) and flexuous bittercress (Cardamine flexuosa With.) by applying weed seed from 0 to 10 weeks after herbicide application. Granular formulations of pendimethalin, prodiamine + isoxaben, oxyfluorfen + pendimethalin, and flumioxazin were applied at their maximum labeled rates to separate groups of containers every two weeks for ten weeks. After the herbicide application at 10 weeks, 40 seeds of creeping woodsorrel and flexuous bittercress each were applied to all containers. All herbicides provided effective control when seed were applied within 2 weeks of herbicide application. Herbicides containing oxyfluorfen or flumioxazin provided effective preemergence bittercress and creeping woodsorrel control when seed were applied up to 8 to 10 weeks after herbicide application. Other herbicide products resulted in reduced control as the time between herbicide and seed application increased.Index words: weed control, container crops, substrates.Species used in this study: flexuous bittercress (Cardamine flexuosa With.), creeping woodsorrel (Oxalis corniculata L.).Chemicals used in this study: pendimethalin (Pendulum 2G), prodiamine + isoxaben (Gemini G), pendimethalin + oxyfluorfen (OH2), and flumioxazin (BroadStar).

A cold hardiness evaluation of 57 cultivars and species of grevillea (Grevillea) was conducted from 2011 to 2014 in Aurora, OR, to assess landscape suitability in the Pacific Northwest United States. Plants were established using irrigation in 2011, but they received no supplemental water, mineral nutrients, or pruning from 2012 to 2014. Plants were evaluated for injury in Mar. 2012 and Jan. 2014 after winter cold events with minimum temperatures of -4 and -13 degrees C, respectively. Damage, at least on some level, occurred on most selections following their first winter after planting in 2011. During Winter 2013, further damage to, or death of, 33 grevillea cultivars or species occurred. The grevillea that exhibited the least cold damage and the most promise for landscape use and further evaluation in the Pacific Northwest United States were 'Poorinda Elegance' hybrid grevillea, southern grevillea (G. australis), cultivars of juniper-leaf grevillea (G. juniperina) including Lava Cascade and Molonglo, and oval-leaf grevillea (G. miqueliana), all of which exhibited minor foliage damage. Washington State Department of Agriculture Nursery License Surcharge program (Olympia, WA) We appreciate and acknowledge financial support from the Washington State Department of Agriculture Nursery License Surcharge program (Olympia, WA), as well as the donation of cutting material from the University of California, Santa Cruz, Arboretum, and the assistance of the staff at the Arboretum. Thanks are also due to Oregon State University Marion County Master Gardeners for assistance with plot establishment and data collection. Public domain – authored by a U.S. government employee

Water resources can be used more efficiently by including sustainable substrate components like coir that increase water-holding capacity. The first objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of coir amendment rate on plant available water and plant gas exchange, with the goal of optimizing substrate available water and determining the optimum coir amendment rate in a greenhouse environment. The second objective was to establish the optimum method of determining plant available water using either plant gas exchange parameters or substrate physical properties. Greenhouse experiments were conducted with Hydrangea paniculata &lsquo, Jane&rsquo, (Little Lime&reg, hardy hydrangea) potted with one of five different coir rates (0%, 10%, 25%, 40% and 65%) mixed with pine bark on a volume basis. Plant gas exchange parameters and substrate water content were measured daily over a range of increasingly drier substrate moisture contents. Actual photosynthetic rates increased with increasing coir amendment rate and were highest with 65% coir amendment. Amending pine bark with coir increased the water storage capacity, plant available water, and plant gas exchange parameters. Results suggest that 65% coir amendment rate was the optimum amendment rate among those tested in a greenhouse environment and plant photosynthetic rate was the better method of determining plant available water.

Nursery production of birch (Betula nigra L.) trees commonly occurs in containers using a soilless substrate such as pine bark or peat moss. Birch trees have been reported to suffer from pH...

Controlling irrigation using timers or manually operated systems is the most common irrigation scheduling method in outdoor container production systems. Improving irrigation efficiency can be achieved by scheduling irrigation based on plant water needs and the appropriate use of sensors rather than relying on periodically adjusting irrigation volume based on perceived water needs. Substrate amendments such as biochar, a carbon (C)-rich by-product of pyrolysis or gasification, can increase the amount of available water and improve irrigation efficiency and plant growth. Previous work examined two on-demand irrigation schedules in controlled indoor (greenhouse) environments. The goal of this study was to evaluate the impact of these on-demand irrigation schedules and hardwood biochar on water use and biomass gain of container-grown Hydrangea paniculata ‘Silver Dollar’ in a typical outdoor nursery production environment. Eighteen independently controlled irrigation zones were designed to test three irrigation schedules on ‘Silver Dollar’ hydrangea grown in pine bark amended with 0% or 25% hardwood biochar. The three irrigation schedules were conventional irrigation and two on-demand schedules, which were based on substrate physical properties or plant physiology. Conventional irrigation delivered 1.8 cm water in one event each day. The scheduling of substrate-based irrigation was based on the soilless substrate moisture characteristic curve, applying water whenever the substrate water content corresponding to a substrate water potential of –10 kPa was reached. The plant-based irrigation schedule was based on a specific substrate moisture content derived from a previously defined relationship between substrate moisture content and photosynthetic rate, maintaining the volumetric water content (VWC) to support photosynthesis at 90% of the maximum predicted photosynthetic rate. Total water use for the substrate-based irrigation was the same as for the conventional system; the plant-based system used significantly less water. However, plant dry weight was 22% and 15% greater, water use efficiency (WUE) was 40% and 40% greater, and total leachate volume was 25% and 30% less for the substrate-based and plant-based irrigation scheduling systems, respectively, than for conventional irrigation. The 25% biochar amendment rate reduced leachate volume per irrigation event, and leaching fraction, but did not affect total water use or plant dry weight. This research demonstrated that on-demand irrigation scheduling that is plant based or substrate based could be an effective approach to increase WUE for container-grown nursery crops without affecting plant growth negatively.

Greenhouse growers must use water more efficiently. One way to achieve this goal is to monitor substrate moisture content to decrease leaching. A systems approach to irrigation management would include knowledge of substrate matric potentials and air-filled pore space (AS) in addition to substrate moisture content. To study the relationship between substrate moisture and plant growth, annual vinca (Catharanthus roseus L.) was subject to a 2 × 2 factorial combination of two irrigation treatments and two substrates with differing moisture characteristic curves (MCCs). A gravimetric on-demand irrigation system was used to return substrate moisture content to matric potentials of −2 or −10 kPa at each irrigation via injected drippers inserted into each container. Moisture characteristic curves were used to determine gravimetric water content (GWC), volumetric water content (VWC), and AS at target substrate matric potential values for a potting mix consisting of sphagnum moss and perlite and a potting mix consisting of sphagnum moss, pine bark, perlite, and vermiculite. At each irrigation event, irrigation automatically shut off when the substrate-specific weight of the potted plants associated with the target matric potential was reached. Irrigation was triggered when the associated weight for a given treatment dropped 10% from the target weight. VWC and AS differed between substrates at similar matric potential values. Irrigating substrates to −2 kPa increased the irrigation volume applied, evapotranspiration, plant size, leaf area, shoot and root dry weight, and flower number per plant relative to irrigating to −10 kPa. Fafard 3B had less AS than Sunshine LB2 at target matric potential values. Plants grown in Fafard 3B had greater leaf area, shoot dry weight, and root dry weight. Leachate fraction ranged from 0.05 to 0.08 and was similar across all treatment combinations. Using data from an MCC in conjunction with gravimetric monitoring of the container–substrate–plant system allowed AS to be determined in real time based on the current weight of the substrate. Closely managing substrate matric potential and AS in addition to substrate water content can reduce irrigation and leachate volume while maintaining plant quality and reducing the environmental impacts of greenhouse crop production.

Scarcity and competition for good quality and potable water resources are limiting their use for urban landscape irrigation, with several nontraditional sources being potentially available for these activities. Some of these alternative sources include rainwater, stormwater, brackish aquifer water, municipal reclaimed water (MRW), air-conditioning (A/C) condensates, and residential graywater. Knowledge on their inherent chemical profile and properties, and associated regional and temporal variability, is needed to assess their irrigation quality and potential short- and long-term effects on landscape plants and soils and to implement best management practices that successfully deal with their quality issues. The primary challenges with the use of these sources are largely associated with high concentrations of total salts and undesirable specific ions [sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), boron (B), and bicarbonate (HCO3−) alkalinity]. Although the impact of these alternative water sources has been largely devoted to human health, plant growth and aesthetic quality, and soil physicochemical properties, there is emergent interest in evaluating their effects on soil biological properties and in natural ecosystems neighboring the urban areas where they are applied.

Bagged potting mixes can be stored for weeks or months before being used by consumers. Some bagged potting mixes are amended with organic fertilizers such as poultry litter (PL), although there is little knowledge about how these and other organic fertilizers release in the substrate while in storage. The objective of this research was to determine nutrient availability from an organic PL fertilizer in a bagged potting substrate stored at different temperatures and with varying initial moisture content (IMC). The base substrate composed of 60 sphagnum peat : 30 bark : 10 perlite (by vol.) amended with 5.5 g·L−1 dolomitic limestone and 0.5 g·L−1 granular wetting agent. This base substrate was either not amended with additional fertilizer [nonfertilized control (NFC)] or amended with a PL fertilizer (microSTART60, 3N–0.9P–2.5K) in its original pelletized form (PL-P) or ground (PL-G), or an uncoated prill fertilizer (UPF, 15N–6.5P–12.5K). Substrates had IMCs of 25%, 45%, or 65% (by weight) and were stored at either 20 or 40 °C. The UPF treatment resulted in lower pH, higher electrical conductivity (EC), and higher percent recovered nitrogen (N) compared with other treatments, as was expected with a readily soluble fertilizer. Poultry litter particle size had no effect on any of the measured chemical properties of the stored substrates. Both PL fertilizer treatments resulted in pH similar to or lower than the NFC. The two PL fertilizers had higher EC throughout the experiment (1.59–2.76 mS·cm−1) than NFC (0.13–0.35 mS·cm−1). Poultry litter fertilizer provided a stable source of N in bagged potting mix over a range of IMC and storage temperatures, with little change in total N released over time.

Water-efficient soilless substrates need to be engineered to address diminishing water resources. Therefore, we investigated soilless substrates with varying hydrologies to determine their influence on crop growth and plant water status. Aged loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) bark was graded into four particle size fractions. The coarsest fraction was also blended with either sphagnum peat or coir at rates that mimic static physical properties of the unfractionated bark or conventional substrate used by specialty crop producers within the eastern United States. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ‘Fort Myers’ plugs were established in each of the seven substrates and maintained at optimal substrate water potentials (−50 to −100 hPa). After a salable crop was produced 93 days after transplanting, substrate was allowed to dry until plants completely wilted. Crop morphology and water use was affected by substrate hydrology. Increased substrate unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K) allowed for plants to access higher proportions of water and therefore increased crop growth. Maintaining optimal substrate water potential allowed plants to be produced with Ks). Plants grown in substrates with higher hydraulic conductivities were able to use more water. Soilless substrate hydrology can be modified and used in concert with more efficient irrigation systems to provide more water sustainability in container crop systems.

Silicon (Si) is a plant beneficial element associated with the mitigation of abiotic and biotic stresses. Most greenhouse-grown ornamentals are considered low Si accumulators based on foliar Si concentration. However, Si accumulates in all tissues, and there is little published data on the distribution of Si in plants. This knowledge may be critical to using Si to mitigate tissue-specific plant stresses, e.g., pathogens. Therefore, we quantified Si accumulation and distribution in petunia (Petunia ×hybrida Hort. Vilm.-Andr. ‘Dreams Pink’), a low Si accumulator, and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. ‘Pacino Gold’), a high Si accumulator. Plants were grown in a sphagnum peat: perlite substrate amended with 0% (−Si) or 20% (+Si) parboiled rice hulls for 53 (petunia) or 72 days (sunflower). Aboveground dry weight was greater in nonamended petunia (13%) and sunflower (18%), compared with rice hull–amended plants, but days to flower was unaffected. Sunflowers grown in the rice hull–amended substrate had the greatest Si concentration in leaves (10,909 mg·kg−1), whereas roots (895 mg·kg−1), stems (303 mg·kg−1), and flowers (252 mg·kg−1) had lower, but similar Si concentrations. In petunia, Si concentration was greatest in leaves (2036 mg·kg−1), then roots (1237 mg·kg−1), followed by stems (301 mg·kg−1), and flowers (247 mg·kg−1). The addition of rice hulls to the substrate increased Si concentration in sunflower 414% in roots, 512% in flowers, 611% in stems, and 766% in leaves. By contrast, Si concentration in petunia increased only 7% in flowers, 105% in stems, and 115% in leaves, but increased 687% in roots. In rice hull–amended sunflowers, the distribution of Si was 91% in leaves, 3% in stems, 3% in roots, and 3% in flowers, and in petunia, it was 72% in leaves, 17% in stems, 6% in roots, and 5% in flowers.

Marigolds (Tagetes sp.) are ornamental plants with fine-textured, dark green foliage, and yellow, orange, or bicolored flowers. The relative salt tolerance of eight marigolds [‘Discovery Orange’, ‘Discovery Yellow’, ‘Taishan Gold’, ‘Taishan Orange’, and ‘Taishan Yellow’ african marigold (Tagetes erecta); ‘Hot Pak Gold’, ‘Hot Pak Orange’, and ‘Hot Pak Yellow’ french marigold (Tagetes patula)] was evaluated in a greenhouse experiment. Plants were irrigated weekly with nutrient solution at an electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.2 dS·m−1 (control) or saline solutions at an EC of 3.0 or 6.0 dS·m−1 (EC 3 or EC 6). Marigold plants began to show foliar salt damage (leaf burn and necrosis) at 6 weeks after the initiation of treatment. At harvest (9 weeks after the initiation of treatment), ‘Discovery Orange’, ‘Discovery Yellow’, ‘Taishan Gold’, and ‘Taishan Yellow’ plants exhibited severe foliar salt damage with visual scores less than 2 (on a scale of 0 to 5, with 0 = dead and 5 = excellent with no foliar salt damage) in EC 6. In the same treatment, ‘Hot Pak Gold’ and ‘Taishan Orange’ plants all died and only one of nine ‘Hot Pak Orange’ and ‘Hot Pak Yellow’ plants survived. In EC 3, all cultivars had slight or minimal foliar salt damage with visual scores ≈4 with the exception of Taishan Gold and Taishan Orange plants that showed moderate foliar damage with a visual score of 2.3 and 2.1, respectively. Treatment EC 3 reduced the flower number of ‘Discovery Orange’, ‘Discovery Yellow’, ‘Hot Pak Gold’, and ‘Hot Pak Yellow’ by 52%, 28%, 50%, and 30%, respectively, whereas EC 6 decreased the flower number of ‘Discovery Orange’ and ‘Discovery Yellow’ by 48% and 52%, respectively. In addition, both EC 3 and EC 6 did not reduce total dry weight (DW) of any cultivars, except Hot Pak Yellow and Taishan Yellow. In conclusion, all marigold cultivars are moderately sensitive to salt. ‘Discovery Orange’, ‘Taishan Yellow’, ‘Discovery Yellow’, and ‘Taishan Gold’ were more tolerant than ‘Hot Pak Gold’, ‘Hot Pak Orange’, ‘Hot Pak Yellow’, and ‘Taishan Orange’.

Container-grown nursery crops generally require daily irrigation applications and potentially more frequent applications during the hottest part of the growing season. Developing management practices that make more efficient use of irrigation water is important for improving the sustainability of nursery crop production. Biochar, a byproduct of pyrolysis, can potentially increase the water-holding capacity and reduce water and nutrient leaching. In addition, the development of sensor-based irrigation technologies has made monitoring substrate moisture a practical tool for irrigation management in the nursery industry. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of switchgrass biochar on water and nutrient-holding capacity and release in container substrates of Buxus sempervirens L. × Buxus microphylla (‘Green Velvet’ boxwood) and Hydrangea paniculata (Pinky Winky® hardy hydrangea). Containers were filled with pine bark and amended with 0%, 10%, or 25% volume of biochar. Plants were irrigated when the volumetric water content (VWC) reached the water-buffering capacity set point of 0.25 cm3·cm−3. The sensor-based irrigation in combination with the low cost biochar substrate amendment increased substrate water-holding capacity and reduced irrigation requirements for the production of hydrangea, a high water use plant. Biochar application rate influenced irrigation frequency, which likely affected plant biomass for hydrangea, but boxwood dry weight was unaffected by biochar rate. Total irrigation applied was decreased by 32% in 10% biochar treatment without reducing hydrangea dry weight. However, in the 25% biochar treatment, total irrigation applied was reduced by 72%, whereas dry weight decreased by 50%. Biochar application reduced leaching volume and leaching fraction in both plants. Leachate analysis over the course of the 8-week experiment showed that the average mass of phosphate (PO4), potassium (K), and total carbon was greater in the leachate from containers that received 25% biochar compared with those receiving 0% or 10% biochar for both plant species. For hydrangea, mass of total nitrogen (TN) and nitrate (NO3) in leachate was not significantly affected by increasing the biochar rate. However, for boxwood, the mass of NO3 and TN was greater in the 25% biochar treatment leachate, whereas the mass of ammonium (NH4) was unaffected. In hydrangea, total nutrients lost from the containers was lower in biochar-amended containers (both 10% and 25% biochar) because of receiving a lower total volume of water. Amendment with biochar also affected concentration of phosphorus (P) and K, with the highest concentration in both leaf tissue and substrate from the 25% biochar application rate.

Container nursery substrates in the central and eastern U.S. are composed primarily of pine bark with lesser percentages of other amendments, including sphagnum peatmoss. Peatmoss is often amended from 0% to 40% (by vol.) to increase the water holding capacity of the substrate. The objective of this research was to determine how a pine bark substrate amended with sphagnum peatmoss affects creeping woodsorrel (Oxalis corniculata L.) germination in containers with or without applications of pendimethalin herbicide. Increasing percentage of peatmoss increased the water holding capacity of the substrate; however, water availability on the substrate surface where weed seed germinate and establish was the same in all substrates. Substrates with varying levels of sphagnum peatmoss only slightly affected weed germination. While sphagnum peat moss can be used to increase the water holding characteristics of a substrate, changes in bulk substrate physical properties will not affect herbicide performance or weed germination on the substrate surface.Index words: Herbicide, irrigation, substrate, porosity, weed control.Chemicals used in this study: pendimethalin (Pendulum 2G).Species used in this study: creeping woodsorrel (Oxalis corniculata L.) (OXACO).

Because of limited supply of high-quality water, alternative water sources have been used for irrigation in water-scarce regions. However, alternative waters usually contain high salt levels, which can cause salt damage on salt-sensitive plants. A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the relative salt tolerance of 10 common ornamental taxa to saline water irrigation. The 10 taxa studied were Chaenomeles speciosa ‘Orange Storm’ and ‘Pink Storm’ (Chaenomeles Double Take™); Diervilla rivularis ‘G2X885411’, ‘G2X88544’ (Diervilla Kodiak®, Black, Orange, and Red, respectively), and ‘Smndrsf’; Forsythia ×intermedia ‘Mindor’ (Forsythia Show Off®); Hibiscus syriacus ‘ILVOPS’ (Hibiscus Purple Satin®); Hydrangea macrophylla ‘Smhmtau’ and ‘Smnhmsigma’ (Hydrangea Let’s Dance® Blue Jangles® and Rave, respectively); and Parthenocissus quinquefolia ‘Troki’ (Parthenociss quinquefolia Red Wall®). Plants were irrigated with a nutrient solution at an electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.2 dS·m−1 (control) or saline solutions at EC of 5.0 or 10.0 dS·m−1 (EC 5 or EC 10) eight times on a weekly basis. The results indicated that the 10 ornamental taxa had different morphological and physiological responses to salinity. The C. speciosa and D. rivularis plants in EC 5 had severe salt foliar damage, whereas those in EC 10 were dead. Hibiscus syriacus ‘ILVOPS’ performed well in EC 5 treatment with a shoot dry weight (DW) reduction of 26%, but those in EC 10 had severe foliar salt damage. Hydrangea macrophylla, F. ×intermedia ‘Mindor’ and P. quinquefolia ‘Troki’ were the most salt tolerant with minor foliar salt damage. The two H. macrophylla cultivars had the highest shoot sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) concentrations with a visual quality of 3 (scale 0 to 5 with 0 for dead plants and 5 for excellent performance), indicating that H. macrophylla plants adapted to elevated salinity by tolerating high Na and Cl concentrations in leaf tissue. Forsythia ×intermedia ‘Mindor’ and P. quinquefolia ‘Troki’ had relatively low leaf Na and Cl concentration, indicating that both taxa are capable of excluding Na and Cl. Chaenomeles speciosa and D. rivularis were sensitive to salinity with great growth reduction, severe foliar salt damage, and high Na and Cl accumulation in leaf tissue.

Relative salt tolerance of eight Berberis thunbergii (japanese barberry) cultivars (B. thunbergii ‘Celeste’, ‘Kasia’, ‘Maria’, ‘Mini’, and ‘Talago’; B. thunbergii var. atropurpurea ‘Concorde’, ‘Helmond Pillar’, and ‘Rose Glow’) was evaluated in a greenhouse experiment. Plants were irrigated with nutrient solution at an electrical conductivity (EC) of 1.2 dS·m−1 (control) or saline solutions at an EC of 5.0 or 10.0 dS·m−1 (EC 5 or EC 10) once a week for 8 weeks. At 4 weeks after treatment, all barberry cultivars in EC 5 had minimal foliar damage with visual scores of 4 or greater (visual score 0: dead, 5: excellent). At 8 weeks after treatment, in EC 5, ‘Helmond Pillar’, ‘Maria’, ‘Mini’, and ‘Rose Glow’ plants exhibited slight foliar salt damage with an average visual score of 3.5, whereas ‘Celeste’, ‘Concorde’, ‘Kasia’, and ‘Talago’ had minimal foliar salt damage with an averaged visual score of 4.4. However, most barberry plants in EC 10 exhibited severe foliar salt damage 4 weeks after treatment with the exception of ‘Concorde’ and were dead 8 weeks after treatment. Compared with control, at the end of the experiment (8 weeks of treatments), shoot dry weight (DW) of ‘Celeste’, ‘Helmond Pillar’, ‘Maria’, and ‘Rose Glow’ in EC 5 was reduced by 47%, 47%, 50%, and 42%, respectively, whereas shoot DW of ‘Concorde’, ‘Kasia’, ‘Mini’, and ‘Talago’ in EC 5 did not change. In EC 10, shoot DW of ‘Celeste’, ‘Concorde’, ‘Kasia’, and ‘Talago’ was reduced by 75%, 35%, 55%, and 46%, respectively. The averaged sodium (Na) concentration of all barberry cultivars in EC 5 and EC 10 was 34 and 87 times, respectively, higher than the control, whereas leaf chloride (Cl) concentration of all barberry cultivars in EC 5 and EC 10 was 14–60 and 29–106 times, respectively, higher than the control. Growth, visual quality, and performance index (PI) were all negatively correlated with leaf Na and Cl content in all cultivars, suggesting that excessive Na and Cl accumulation in the leaf tissue led to growth reduction, salt damage, and death. In summary, ‘Concorde’, ‘Kasia’, and ‘Talago’ were relatively salt tolerant; ‘Helmond Pillar’, ‘Maria’, ‘Mini’, and ‘Rose Glow’ were relatively salt sensitive; and ‘Celeste’ was in between the two groups. Generally, barberry plants had moderate salt tolerance and can be irrigated with marginal water at an EC of 5 dS·m−1 or lower with slight foliar damage.

Liming agents (LAs) in irrigation water, typically associated with carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), contribute to water alkalinity. Repeated application of LA to container crops can cause media-solution pH to rise overtime, that uncorrected, can lead to a nutrient availability imbalance that may be suboptimal for plant-growth due to nutrient disorder(s). To correct high levels of LA in irrigation water, growers can inject acid into their irrigation system to neutralize alkalinity. Therefore, a 52-week study was conducted using irrigation water, substrate, and plants from a commercial nursery in Florida that has a history of poor water quality and plant production problems related to high alkalinity irrigation water. The objectives of the study were to assess substrate pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrients, and plant nutrition and growth for thyrallis (Galphimia gracilis Bartl.) to irrigation water acidification. Treatments consisted of irrigation water acidified with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to neutralize 0% (control), 40%, or 80% of calcium carbonates (CaCO3) yielding a CaCO3 (meq·L−1)/pH levels of 5 [High Alkalinity (H-A)]/7.37, 3 [Medium Alkalinity (M-A)]//6.37, and 1 [Low Alkalinity (L-A)]//4.79, respectively. Substrate analysis by the 1:2 dilution method at the end of the study was significant (P < 0.05) for pH 6.2, 5.2, and 4.7 for the H-A, M-A, and L-A treatments, respectively, and for nutrients Ca, Mn, and Zn. Foliar nutrient levels were statistically significant (P < 0.05) for alkalinity treatment for Fe, K, Mn, P, and Zn. Alkalinity treatment was significant (P < 0.05) for growth, leaf greenness (by SPAD), and quality (by survey) with the M-A treatment producing more biomass, having greener leaves, and the highest aesthetic quality value than the H-A or L-A treatments. A qualitative survey of root systems at harvest showed that the M-A and L-A treatment root systems were greater than the H-A treatment based on visual side-wall root development. These data demonstrate that irrigation water acidification does alter substrate pH and nutrients and plant tissue nutrient levels and growth over a long-term production cycle typical for nursery crops.

Bagged potting mixes can be stored for weeks or months before being used by consumers. Some bagged potting mixes are amended with controlled release fertilizers (CRFs). The objective of this research was to determine how initial substrate moisture content and storage temperature affect the chemical properties of bagged potting mix with CRF incorporated and stored for up to 180 days. The base substrate composed of 60 sphagnum peat: 30 bark : 10 perlite (by vol.) amended with 5.5 g·L−1 dolomitic limestone and 0.5 g·L−1 granular wetting agent. This base substrate was either not amended with additional fertilizer (control) or amended with 0.59 kg·m−3 N of a CRF (Osmocote 18N–1.3P–5K) that was either ground (CRF-G) or whole prills (CRF-P). Substrates had initial moisture contents (IMCs) of 25%, 45%, or 65% and were stored at temperatures of either 20 or 40 °C. IMC and fertilizer type affected pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrient release. Substrate pH increased with increasing IMC due to greater lime reactivity. About 25% of N from CRF-G treatments was immobilized between 2 and 14 days of storage. Low moisture content of bags, due to low IMC or storage at 40 °C, reduced the rate of N release from CRF-P treatments. Substrate P was rapidly immobilized by microbial communities.

Parboiled rice hulls (PBH) have been shown to be an effective mulch for weed control in container crops. As with other mulch products, there is concern that PBH mulch would interfere with nutrient delivery to the crop. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of PBH mulch on nutrient concentration of fertilized irrigation water as it passes through the mulch layer, and the subsequent effect on growth and nutrition of container-grown sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Parboiled rice hull mulch was placed in Buchner funnels at a depth of 0, 0.63, 1.25, or 2.50 cm. Irrigation was applied with a water-soluble fertilizer (20N–4.4P–16.6K) injected at a concentration of 100 mg·L−1 N. Filtrates were collected after passing through the PBH in the Buchner funnels and analyzed for nutrient concentration. In a separate study, sunflower in no. 3 containers were mulched with the same depths of PBH and irrigated with water fertilized similar to that in the funnel experiment. Parboiled rice hull mulch caused a temporary and slight decrease in NO3− and NH4+ concentration. Phosphate and K+ concentrations generally increased with each irrigation event. Calcium and Mg exhibited an inverse relationship where the PBH mulch decreased Ca and increased Mg concentrations in the filtrates. Despite these measured differences in the chemical properties of water passing through the mulch layer, there were no measurable differences in sunflower growth or physical appearance, and only minor and inconsequential differences in plant nutrient status. Rice hull mulches are likely to have very minor effects on container crop nutrition with no adverse effect on plant growth over a 6 week production cycle as used in this experiment.

Gasified rice hull biochar (GRHB) is a byproduct of rice production, where rice hulls are gasified to generate energy for other aspects of rice processing. Other research has shown that GRHB up to 10% (v/v) in a soilless substrate can provide much, but not all, of a potted floriculture crops’ phosphorus and potassium needs. The objective of this research was to determine the effect of higher GRHB rates on floriculture crop nutrition and growth. Two experiments were conducted with GRHB rates ranging from 0% to 30% (v/v) of a soilless peatmoss-based substrate. Geranium (Pelargonium ×hortorum ‘Maverick Red’) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum ‘Megabite’) were grown in 10-cm diameter pots with amended substrates. Addition of GRHB up to 30% affected the physical properties of the peatmoss-based substrate by increasing container capacity (CC) and decreasing unavailable water (UAW). Summarizing across the two experiments, amending a peatmoss substrate with 15% and 20% GRHB provided sufficient P and K for production of geranium and tomato in soilless substrates over a 5 to 6 week production cycle. However, GRHB did not provide a sufficient source of micronutrients to support acceptable crop growth. Geranium responded negatively to high rates (>10%) with reduced shoot and root growth, while tomato responded positively to higher rates with increased shoot growth. Higher rates of GRHB (>10%) can be recommended for some crops, but not all.

Arugula (Eruca sativa) is cultivated using hydroponic techniques in greenhouses to fulfill high year-round demand, but its nutrient management in hydroponic production has not yet been standardized, potentially leading to limited quality and productivity. Aiming to address this issue, we investigated the effect of electrical conductivity (EC) on yield, nutritional and phytochemical properties of arugula. The model cultivar arugula ‘Standard’ was grown at four different EC levels (1.2, 1.5, 1.8, and 2.1 dS·m−1). Our results indicated photosynthetic properties, SPAD, leaf area, yield and dry weight increased with increasing EC from 1.2 to 1.8 dS·m−1. Foliar nutrient content increased with higher EC, but nutrient solution with 2.1 dS·m−1 showed a significant decline in N, Ca and most of the micronutrients including Fe, Zn, Mo, Cu, B and Mn. Total glucosinolates, total chlorophyll and total carotenoids concentrations increased with increasing EC. In addition, total anthocyanin content was highest in plants grown in EC 1.2 and 2.1 dS·m−1, demonstrating a stress response when grown in extreme EC levels. Our results further indicated a rapid accumulation of nitrate with higher EC, potentially detrimental to human health. This research demonstrated the optimal EC range would be 1.5 to 1.8 dS·m−1 for arugula in hydroponic production systems based on yield, quality criteria and human health considerations.

Dolomitic lime (DL) is one of the most commonly used fertilizer amendments in nursery container substrates. It is used to adjust pH of pine bark substrates from their native pH, 4.1 to 5.1, up to about pH 6. However, additions of DL have been shown to be beneficial, inconsequential, or detrimental depending on the crop to which it is applied and irrigation water quality. Carbonate ions from DL cause a rate-dependent change in pH. Dolomitic lime can adjust pH of pine bark up to ≈6.5, after which there is little change regardless of how much additional DL is added. Changes in pH affect the rate of nitrification in pine bark substrates. The rate of nitrification can impact the quality of some plants that are sensitive to ammonium toxicity, as well as affect nitrogen leaching from containers. Changes in pH also affect micronutrient availability in pine bark substrates. Dolomitic lime provides an abundant source of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) for plant uptake. However, the additional Ca and Mg might also suppress potassium uptake in plants.

Steel slag is a byproduct of the steel industry that can be used as a liming agent, but also has a high mineral nutrient content. While micronutrients are present in steel slag, it is not known if the mineral form of the micronutrients would render them available for plant uptake. The objective of this research was to determine if steel slag could be used as the sole micronutrient source for container-grown nursery crops. Butterfly bush (Buddleja davidii ‘Pink Delight’) and rose (Rosa ‘Radrazz’) were grown in #3 (3 gal) containers in a base substrate composed of pine bark and peatmoss (80:20, by vol). The base substrate was amended with the following treatments: with a complete controlled release fertilizer (CRF) including micronutrients (C-control), a substrate amended with a different CRF containing only N, P, and K along with a granular micronutrient package (M-control), and three additional treatments amended with the CRF (N, P, and K only) and either 1.2, 2.4, or 4.8 kg·m−3 (2, 4, and 8 lb·yd−3) of steel slag. Plants were harvested at 2 and 4 months after potting (MAP). None of the plants displayed any sign of nutrient deficiency or toxicity throughout the experiment. However, plants grown in the substrate amended with the highest slag rate [4.8 kg·m−3 (8 lb·yd−3)] had lower shoot dry weight (SDW) than both control groups. Substrate pH increased with increasing slag rate, which may have affected micronutrient availability in those substrates. Among the micronutrients analyzed, only Copper (Cu) was consistently deficient in both the substrate and foliar tissue of slag-amended treatments. Steel slag either does not provide a sufficient quantity of Cu or the concomitant increase in pH with increasing rates of steel slag renders Cu unavailable for plant uptake. Steel slag should not be used as the sole source of micronutrients for shrubs grown in pine bark-based substrates.