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The growing interest of researchers in the topic of biocultural diversity has resulted in the research field expanding from its initial focus on places inhabited by indigenous communities to rural and then to urban landscapes. The aims of this study are to summarize and review the current state of knowledge on biocultural landscape (BCL), present a spectrum of human activities leading to their formation, and based on that, focus on typology of these landscapes. Moreover, the connections between cultural ecosystem services (CES) and BCLs were examined, and the research on these unique landscapes in individual countries and the proportion of studied landscape types were graphically displayed. BCLs are threatened all over the world; therefore, there is a need to identify and recognize them, and provide them with effective legislative protection.

The European Landscape Convention aims to promote landscape protection, management and planning. This must be done based on identification and knowledge of those basic landscape types that were created by the interaction of human and nature over the course of historical development. This paper presents a methodological approach for creation and evaluation of representative biocultural types of landscape, in order to elaborate an effective strategy for landscape protection, and proposes a management strategy of sustainable use of representative biocultural landscapes of Slovakia. That will ensure the regular maintenance of the landscape in view of current global trends and factors affecting the landscape. Our interdisciplinary approach is based on previous landscape classifications and the interaction of natural and cultural elements. The classification of the biocultural landscape is obtained as a result of multi-criteria analysis in GIS and synthesis of maps of potential vegetation, real ecosystems and current land use, abiotic conditions of representative geoecosystems of Slovakia, and other specific statistical data. We assessed the perception and significance of individual landscape types by way of a questionnaire survey. In Slovakia, seven basic types of landscape were singled out, ranging from natural to semi-natural to anthropogenic, within which other subtypes were specified. We assessed the protection of individual types, as well as threats and degradation of the landscape. Insufficient protection is given to the most valuable types of biocultural landscape and new tools and methods of support and protection have to be implemented.

The authors have prepared a detailed map of Slovakia’s ecosystems, which identifies individual ecosystems and their spatial distribution, status, and selected properties. The impetus for the production of this map is the need of various stakeholders, especially nature protection bodies, forestry management, agricultural management and public administration, for better data on the distribution of ecosystems. The methodology mostly involves using GIS analytical tools to combine datasets on nature protection, forestry, and agriculture which list attributes related to habitat identification. The results can be used for ecosystem services assessment, spatial planning, nature protection analysis, and other related purposes. The spatial precision of the data is determined by that of the field data, which was mostly created at scales between 1:10000 and 1:5000. The data are stored in the form of a geodatabase containing more than 1,000,000 polygons.

In the past, historical rural Europe possessed a broad range of biological and cultural values due to landscape diversity and the use of low-impact agricultural practices. It’s typical feature was the presence of varied semi-natural habitats. The massive socioeconomic changes of the 20th caused significant loss of these habitats. The term traditional agricultural landscape (TAL) denotes the surviving remnants of this landscape heritage. Despite its exceptional value, conservation practice for TAL is very poor. The concept of “biocultural diversity” provides linkages between cultural and biological diversity and opens up new possibilities for practical conservation of TAL. In our work we have tried to develop and apply this concept. The main goal was to design an approach for assessment of biocultural value at plot level and apply it to the three different traditional rural landscapes in Slovakia—Liptovska Teplicka village, Hriňova town and Svatý Jur town, representing the most typical TAL in Slovakia. The approach was based on determination of a measurable link between ecological and cultural–historical significance. The concept of ecological significance, assessed by comparing the results of the monitoring and evaluation of taxonomic diversity and nature conservation value of vascular plant communities and selected ground-dwelling invertebrate groups (Araneae, Diplopoda, Orthoptera), was complemented by evaluation of cultural–historical significance, leading to the identification of biocultural values in TAL. These evaluations were performed on productive plots of arable lands, grasslands, vineyards, and orchards, and unproductive agrarian landforms (mostly field margins) such as terraced slopes, terraced steps, heaps, mounds and unconsolidated walls.

Context. The European Landscape Convention is international strategy that aims to promote landscape protection, management and planning. This must be done on the basis of identification and knowledge of basic landscape types, which were created by the interaction of man and nature during historical development. Objectives. This paper presents a methodological approach for creation and evaluation of representative biocultural landscape classification types in order to elaborate an effective strategy of landscape protection, and proposes a management strategy of sustainable use of representative biocultural landscape types of Slovakia that will ensure the regular maintenance of the landscape in view current global trends and factors affecting the landscape.Method. Our interdisciplinary approach is based on previous classifications of cultural landscape and interaction of natural elements and valuation of the biotic and biocultural value of the landscape. The classification of the biocultural landscape is a result of multi-criteria analysis in GIS and synthesis of maps of potential vegetation, real ecosystem and current land use, abiotic conditions of representative geoecosystems of Slovakia, and other specific statistical data. We assessed the perception and significance of individual landscape types by way of questionnaire survey. Results. In Slovakia, 7 basic types of landscape were singled out, from natural to semi-natural to anthropogenic, within which other subtypes were specified. The individual types were assessed from the point of view of protection of threats to and degradation of the landscape. Conclusions. The most valuable types of biocultural landscape are given insufficient protection at present and new tools and methods of support and protection have to be implemented.

Marginal and less-favored regions are characterized by negative migration balance, lower living standards, aging of the population, a lower number of employment opportunities, lower educational level, and lower investments in the territory. Gemer is one of these regions in Slovakia. On the other hand, the Gemer region has a very interesting history and many cultural monuments, nature protection areas, and UNESCO World Heritage sites that create options for tourism development. The monuments of the Gothic Road have the potential for religious tourism. Karst relief and the sites and monuments related to mining present on the Iron Road provide suitable conditions for geotourism and mining tourism. Local villages contain traditional agricultural landscapes, which create suitable conditions for active rural tourism associated with creative tourism or agrotourism. There is also the promising possibility of cross-border cooperation with Hungary. However, the revenues from tourism do not reach the same level as in other, similar regions of Slovakia. The main failings of tourism development include the insufficient coordination of destination marketing organization stakeholders, lack of care for monuments, and underestimation of the potential of Roma culture and art production. However, analyzed state policy instruments on the promotion of tourism did not mitigate but rather exacerbated regional disparities in Slovakia.

This article provides an overview and results of the pilot national ecosystem services assessment in Slovakia. It follows the MAES process and past ecosystem services (ES) research in Slovakia and is based on original research methodology using spatial and statistical data. The initial step of national ES assessment resulted in the selection of significant ES for the evaluation process, where 18 ES in three groups were selected (five provisioning, 10 regulatory/maintenance and three cultural ES). An original assessment model provided the theoretical and methodological framework for national ES evaluation. The principal result is an assessment of the national landscape’s capacity for ES provision, based on evaluation of the landscape units and selected properties and indicators at the ecosystem level. These inputs included habitat types and watersheds, administrative units, natural topology, geology, soils, climate, water and biota. The ES capacity models were created and evaluated for each ES, for the main groups and, finally, for overall ES provision. The highest capacity to provide ES in Slovakia comes from natural and semi-natural ecosystems, mainly deciduous, mixed and coniferous forests which cover over 38% of Slovak territory. The water ecosystems and wetlands are also significant, followed by grasslands and permanent crops. The research highlights the crucial importance of the mountainous and sub-mountainous areas in Slovakia and confirms the significant contribution of the natural and semi-natural ecosystems for ensuring ES provision.

The extensive construction of drainage systems in the lowlands and flood plains of Slovakia has significantly changed the landscape and runoff ratios of rivers. Our study focuses on the assessment of the benefits provided by the ecosystems of water ditches and their catchment areas. Ditches and their buffer zone, similarly to other artificial anthropogenic elements in the country, fulfil various landscape-ecological functions and provide different ecosystem services (ESs) to human populations and society. As study areas, we chose ditches and their 1-km buffer zones in the Podunajska nižina (P) lowland and Východoslovenska nižina (V) lowland (Slovakia). There are notable differences between these two selected lowlands. Hence, there are also differences in their potential to provide various ESs. Based on a re-evaluation of the present state of the ditches, we evaluated nine ESs related to three main groups of ESs, using the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES). We assessed the ESs and benefits provided by ditches and their buffer zone in two ways: (1) ES assessment by experts and (2) biophysical assessment of ESs and their benefits based on an integrated assessment framework (relations between pressures, ecological status, and delivery of ESs). Finally, we compared the potentials for provisioning of the study areas. The study area in the V lowland has the highest potential to provide "Lifecycle maintenance, habitat and gene pool protection" benefits, and the study area in the P lowland has the highest potential to provide "Surface water for non-drinking purposes."

This article presents an innovative approach to the concept of facilitating greenways into sustainable landscape planning. The greenways can be planned by application of a landscape-ecological concept, including analysis and synthesis of selected abiotic, biotic, and socio-economic landscape-ecological factors and recreation conditions, and by reviewing the current landscape structure and condition of linear components of green infrastructure. Determining the landscape ecological stability, visual impact of agricultural lands, potential erosion risks and real erosion processes, and identifying the natural, cultural, and historical values in the landscape, contributes to the design of ideal greenways placement and other linear components of green infrastructure. Applying these proposals to the agricultural landscape would increase the ecological stability and connectivity, decrease soil and water erosion risks, eliminate visual impact, and develop recreational infrastructure. In this way, greenways planning brings about a synergy between sustainable rural development, landscape and nature protection, and landscape aesthetics, which provides optimal landscape utilization and may encourage tourism and economic prosperity in the study area. Finally, in addition to the researched ecological benefits, our greenways proposal represents an alternative connection of settlements in rural agricultural landscapes, and so it can stimulate sustainable mobility and recreation as well as physical activity, health, and well-being.

This study presents a methodology for assessment of the condition of hiking trails (HTs) and their impact zones in the central part of the Low Tatra mountain range, based on comparison of two complex data sets gathered in 33 years apart. The first field investigation was performed in 1980 and 1981, and the second in 2013 and 2014. The main goal was to perform a landscape typology in order to assess the susceptibility of landscape complexes to occurrence of anthropogenic and natural destruction processes and to assess the condition and prospects of HTs and their impacts on the adjacent alpine environment. Landscape complexes were characterised by selected abiotic, biotic and technical parameters of HTs and their impact zones. Due to the high variability of these parameters over the length of the HTs, we had to decide on how to map them. This was done using a square grid with 100 m-sized cells. For each cell with HT, the parameters were assigned the typical value within that cell. In total, 26.3 km of HT were studied, stretching over 266 grid cells. On comparison of the two data sets, it was seen that, 64% (171 grid cells) display a generally positive condition, with 54% (143 grid cells) even exhibiting significant improvement or continuously positive state of their condition. 36% (95 grid cells) were in bad condition, including 3% (9 grid cells) whose state had deteriorated, and 2% (6 grid cells) whose state had significantly deteriorated, in the time between the two assessments.

The concept of ecosystem services has gained a strong political profile during the last 15 years. However, there is no specific EU policy devoted to the governing of ecosystem services. This article shows that the ecosystem services concept is already embedded in recent EU (environmentally-related) policies, such as the Biodiversity Strategy 2020 and the Invasive Alien Species Regulation. A review of 12 policies shows that, overall, the coherence between existing policies and the ecosystem services concept is moderate. Policies showing very high coherence are confined to the policy arenas that address natural ecosystems, forestry, or agriculture. Given the sectoral nature of most EU policies and the limited options for revision in the near future, opportunities for improving coherence are mostly expected in improving the integration of the ecosystem services concept in the implementation of existing EU policies at national and regional levels.

Faced with the disappearance and ongoing abandonment of traditional agricultural landscapes (TAL) in Europe, our primary aim is to provide scientific evidence of the importance of TAL in terms of b...

This paper provides a detailed analysis of environment policy implementation in national, regional and local landscape planning in Slovakia. The policy and strategic documents are assessed from the perspective of the ecosystem services (ES) concept which integrates environmental and economic objectives of the landscape planning. This paper builds on three main empirical elements: (1) review of key national policies in respect to landscape planning, (2) review of key local and regional planning, strategic and assessment documents, (3) stakeholder interviews and focus groups. Our results indicate that spatial planning and assessment processes in Slovakia based on legislation and regulations for individual sectors are mainly contradictory in some cases, rather than encompassing integrated (landscape) planning procedures. The ES concept has not been considered in any planning tools across scales. These results were found to be similar with respective EU policies, in which the limited uptake of the ES concept was also observed. Finally, the paper presents recommendations which can enhance spatial planning processes in Slovakia; using an ES-inspired integrated framework for landscape assessment and decision-making. Such improvement of planning and decision-making procedures can be exploited in real-world solutions, and provide long-term benefits for human well-being while still retaining links to ecosystem functions and processes.EDITED BY Sandra Luque

The chapter provides the analysis and assessment of three cultural ES: C1, Recreation and Tourism: Physical Use of Nature and Landscape; C2, Landscape Aesthetics: Aesthetic Values; and C3, Natural and Cultural Heritage: Intellectual and Scientific Values. All ES are described in the unified structure: definition and brief characteristics, methods used for identification and assessment, main types of landscape and ecosystems providing given ES, the importance of ES in terms of nature and landscape protection and ES assessment for the territory of Slovakia. Spatial assessment is provided as a map of the landscape capacity for a given ES provision. For all ES, short conclusions and overview of input data for further assessment of the ES capacity, demand and flow are also given.

This chapter provides comprehensive findings for the three basic groups of ES. Five provisioning ES are essential for Slovakia – agricultural crops; timber and fibre; drinking water; freshwater and fish; and game and wildfood. Regulatory ES represent the regulation of natural processes – erosion and natural hazards mitigation; runoff and flood protection; local and global climate regulation; and air and water quality regulation. Supporting ES enable the appropriate course of natural functions and processes – as biodiversity promotion; pollination; pest and disease control; or soil formation. Cultural ES are the intangible benefits of nature for people, such as recreation and tourism; landscape aesthetics; and natural and cultural heritage. As a synthesis, the overall landscape capacity for ES provision is expressed, as an average of the main ES groups. Regarding landscape types, the high value of the ES capacity is documented for mountains and sub-mountain areas, while the low capacity is typical for lowlands and open basin areas. Also, the relationships between land use and ES are evaluated. Results confirm the generally accepted fact that forest ecosystems are the most important for the ES provision (mainly deciduous forests), and urbanized areas (mainly industrial and technical infrastructure) are the least important. Finally, the crucial importance of nature and landscape protection was confirmed – not only for the healthy state of ecosystems but also for the fulfilment of their functions and services.

This chapter provides the analysis and assessment of ten regulatory and supporting ES: R1, air quality regulation; R2, water quality regulation; R3, erosion and natural hazard regulation; R4, water flow regulation; R5, local climate regulation; R6, global climate regulation/carbon sequestration; R7, biodiversity promotion; R8, life cycle maintenance/pollination; R9, pest and diseases control; and R10, maintenance of soil formation and composition. All ES are described in the unified structure: definition and brief characteristics, methods used for identification and assessment, main types of landscape and ecosystems providing given ES, the importance of ES in terms of nature and landscape protection, and ES assessment for the territory of Slovakia. Spatial assessment is provided as a map of the landscape capacity for given ES provision. For all ES, short conclusions and overview of input data for further assessment of the ES capacity, demand and flow are also given.

Chapter provides a brief overview of the methodology of pilot ES assessment in Slovakia. For the assessment process, in total 41 map inputs were used, in raster format with the pixel size 25 m. The most important data are the land cover map, the ecosystems map, protected areas, forestry data, digital elevation model, and soil data. The resulting landscape capacity maps present selected ES in the 0–100 relative scale, in a uniform standardized pixel format of 1 km resolution. Background data contain about 49,000 pixels with individual ES values and thus represent a basic dataset which is possible to use for further evaluation of the relationships and factors which affect ES provision.

This paper focuses on designing an approach to monitor the effects of the Rural Development Program (RDP) on High Nature Value Farmland type 2 – farmland dominated by traditional mosaics of cultivated land and small-scale features (HNV2) – and its application to farmland in Slovakia. Based on the identification of HNV2 on the national level and selection of monitoring sites, we carried out monitoring for two periods: 1st monitoring of RDP 2007–2013 and 2nd monitoring of RDP 2014–2020. We developed a set of indicators for monitoring of HNV2, which were mapped in the field: management intensity, categories of land cover and type of management, share of semi-natural elements, management activities. The most significant changes were observed in the proportion of semi-natural vegetation and management intensity. We defined five categories of changes in management intensity: either positive – 1) improved, or 2) persistent regular management – or negative – 3) continued abandonment, 4) decrease in management intensity, or 5) intensification causing decrease of landscape diversity. The evaluation of land cover changes on the basis of landscape indices shows higher landscape diversity on sites without subsidies. This shows that subsidies are linked to farmland with less diverse landscape structure. Statistical analyses showed semi-natural vegetation to be dominant on both subsidised and unsubsidised sites. The total area of HNV2, which is one of the basic indicators evaluated under the RDP, is decreasing: partly due to updates and refinements of the Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS), and exclusion of HNV2 sites from LPIS due to a presence of woody elements, but also partly due to abandonment. The results of our study showed a slightly positive contribution of RDP to maintenance and sustainable management of HNV2.

Traditional agricultural landscapes are a mosaic of small-scale arable fields and permanent agricultural cultivations such as grasslands, vineyards and high-trunk orchards. Most of them are threatened by abandonment as they are usually situated in marginal mountain regions with less favourable conditions for agriculture. Our aim was to analyse the distribution of traditional agricultural landscapes in less favoured areas and the effects of the supportive measures of the Common Agricultural Policy, which are oriented towards helping farmers from these areas in maintaining traditional agriculture. Except for traditional agricultural vineyard landscapes, almost all TAL plots are situated in less favoured areas. Most of them are located in mountain areas with less favourable conditions for agriculture. Abandonment of traditional agricultural landscape inside the less favoured areas is significantly higher than in locations elsewhere. The supportive measures of the Common Agricultural Policy do not effectively mitigate this abandonment. If we would like to maintain traditional agricultural landscape in less favoured areas, it is necessary to stop the existing negative trend of abandonment and search for new ways to motivate farmers to continue their traditional farming by adjusting the conditions of the common agricultural policy to benefit small farmers as well.

Subject area: Environmental policy. More specific subject area: Monitoring; evaluation; European Policy; Water Framework Directive; Natura 2000; Agri-Environment Schemes. Type of data: Tables and text. How data was acquired: Review and analysis of any publicly-available information on monitoring programs. Data format: Summarized, analyzed. Experimental factors: In 2017 the authors searched for publicly available about monitoring programs associated with 3 policy areas: the Water Framework Directive, Natura 2000 and Agri-Environment Schemes under the Common Agricultural Policy. Authors from each organization searched for information about monitoring in the country or region of the organization where they are based: Catalonia (Spain), Estonia, Finland, Flanders (Belgium), Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Scotland (UK), Sweden. Internet searches of grey and academic literature were used: some authors also contacted policy contacts for advice about where this information could be found, but did not use any information that was not already publicly available. Experimental features: Bibliographic information on the information sources was recorded (see reference list below), and each author team searched for and summarized information about monitoring and evaluation according to a standard template (see below). Data source location: Catalonia (Spain), Estonia, Finland, Flanders (Belgium), Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Scotland (UK), Sweden. Data accessibility: All of the data are within this article. Related research article: Companion paper to: Waylen, K.A.; Blackstock, K.L.; van Hulst. F.; Damian, C.; Horváth, F.; Johnson, R.; Kanka, R.; Külvik, M.; Macleod, C.; Meissner, C.; Oprina-Pavelescu, M.; Pino, J.; Primmer, E.; Rîșnoveanu, G.; Šatalová, B.; Silander, J.; Špulerová, J.; Suškevičs, M.; Van Uytvanck, J. 2019. Policy-driven monitoring and evaluation: does it support adaptive management of socio-ecological systems? Science of the Total Environment, 662: 373–384 [2]. Value of the data • The data provide the first overview of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) practices carried out by a selection European member states and regions, under 3 European environmental policies (the Water Framework Directive, the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, and Agri-Environment Schemes under the Common Agricultural Policy). • The data permit comparison across cases as well as across policies, and so provide a baseline for comparative studies. • The source of information used to describe monitoring in each case are provided, thus providing a baseline for researchers seeking more in-depth analyses. The data presented in this DiB article provide an overview of Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) carried out for 3 European environmental policies (the Water Framework Directive, the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, and Agri-Environment Schemes implemented under the Common Agricultural Policy), as implemented in 9 cases (Catalonia (Spain), Estonia, Finland, Flanders (Belgium), Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Scotland (UK), Sweden). These data are derived from reports and documents about monitoring programs that were publicly-available online in 2017. The literature on M&E to support adaptive management structured the issues that have been extracted and summarized. The data is related to the research article entitled “Policy-driven monitoring and evaluation: does it support adaptive management of socio-ecological systems?” [Stem et al., 2005]. The information provides a first overview of monitoring and evaluation that has been implemented in response to key European environmental policies. It provides a structured overview that permits a comparison of cases and policies and can assist other scholars and practitioners working on monitoring and evaluation.

The paper is aimed at the presentation of the integrative approach assessment of environmental land use conflicts. It presents basic principles of sustainable land use management. The changes in land use are reflected not only in changes of land cover. They are also the cause of changes in landscape structure and are the main initiation of many environmental problems. From this aspect, it is important to engage the land structure studies not only in the studies of land use forms and land cover, but also in the studies of position and relation in landscape (cause–consequence). To find the cause and casualties of these changes is very important for implementation of rationale landscape utilization. The basic tool for suitable landscape utilization is integrated landscape management as a major instrument of sustainable development. It must be based on understanding landscape systematically as geosystem. The every point of the landscape is representing the integrating scope, scene in which all natural resources are occurring as layers (geological sources, water and soil sources, climate, biotic sources and morphometric parameters) which are mixing together. It is seen as understanding the space as integration of particular natural sources in given area of landscape. Using one source can negatively affect the quality of other sources. For example, intensive use of soil resources can threaten water resources—negative impacts of chemistry, mechanization, and so on. Therefore, land use needs to be assessed on an integrated basis. From aspect of ‘sustainability’, the target is to define such landscape management, which would regulate socio-economic development in landscape with its natural, human, cultural and historical potential. It is based on matching the supply that is represented by landscape resources and demand that is represented by community needs and community requirements. The discrepancy between supply and demand (not respecting the properties of landscape resources) is the determining factor of formation of the environmental problems. The paper presents evaluation of environmental problems resulting from conflict of interests in the land use and methodology for sustainable land use that is based on the integrative approach to the landscape.

The main aim of this study is to assess the benefits provided by the ecosystems of traditional agricultural landscapes (TAL) and compare them to the outputs of large-scale agriculture. Assessment of ecosystem services (ES) was performed in four case-study areas situated in Slovakia, representing different types of TAL: Viticultural landscape, meadow&ndash, pasture landscape, and agricultural landscape with dispersed settlements and mosaics of orchards. The methodological approach was focused on assessment of all the principal types of ES&mdash, regulation and maintenance, provisioning, and cultural. Differences in the provision of ES due to the impact of different practices and intensities of agricultural landscape management were subsequently assessed and compared. The results show that TAL are generally more diverse and balanced regarding ES provision, mainly because of their varied patterns and their related functions. In particular they play an important role in water retention and the prevention of soil erosion&mdash, both important with respect to changes in climate. Modern intensive agriculture is principally able to fulfil the production functions. Support for traditional farming, landscape diversification and small-scale agricultural management is vital for enhancing the values of rural regions. Such measures could become key drivers for sustainable agricultural management in Slovakia, and elsewhere.

Traditional agricultural landscapes (TAL) in Slovakia represents a mosaic of unique small-scale arable fields and permanent agricultural cultivations such as grasslands, vineyards and high-trunk orchards, which did not change during the collectivization of agriculture from the 1950s to the 1980s. After the change to a market-oriented economy in 1989, the management of these valuable structures decreased rapidly. The aim of this study is to investigate the distribution of TAL in Slovakia and to analyse the driving forces behind their accelerated abandonment. The study was conducted at two scales, i.e. country-wide and in three case-studies. 3013 TAL polygons encompassing 44,464 ha were mapped from aerial photos, recording basic characteristics such as land-cover composition or degree of management. A detailed field study concerning the attitude of local people to the management of TAL was conducted in three case study areas. The results from the country-wide mapping shows, that 50% of the TAL area is regularly managed, 34% is partly abandoned, and 16% is abandoned. Abandonment occurs most intensively on steep slopes and on less fertile soils. The distance from settlements is important in the case of TAL with dispersed settlements and TAL with arable land and grasslands. Interviews at the case study level showed that financial profit is the main factor, which would motivate the local people to farm the TAL. Around 30% of respondents showed no interest in management. Local farmers identified the financial instruments in agriculture, in the form of unfavourable subsidies and the financial inaccessibility of modern tools and machinery as the main barriers in ideal management, together with an inadequate market and the weak support of local government. In addition, there are other cultural factors that play a role in their abandonment such as changes in the rural culture, attractivity and diversity of other ways of living, lack of successors, health and age constraints, as well as a number of persisting problems regarding unresolved land ownership in some areas.

Orchards are typical landscape features with a long history in traditional agricultural landscape management. They are situated from lowlands to mountains, mostly in upland areas, where natural conditions are favorable for fruit tree cultivation. Traditional orchard landscape that represents one class of traditional agricultural landscape (TAL) in Slovakia is created by mosaics of arable-land, grasslands and orchards and provides evidence of former small-scale farming in Slovakia. They are areas with irreplaceable ecological, landscape-aesthetic, social, cultural, historical and production values, and it is imperative that they are preserved for future generations as a memorial of the past. The aim of this research is to investigate distribution of traditional orchard landscapes in Slovakia and to evaluate their current state, the threats they face and their importance in biodiversity conservation and protection in traditionally cultivated farmland. Biodiversity assessment showed that forms of anthropogenic relief (balks) are islands of increased plant species richness with a mixture of species from surrounding grasslands, arable fields and orchards. Although traditional orchard landscapes are decreasing and their plots are threatened by abandonment or intensification, almost half are still regularly managed. Parts of abandoned traditional orchard landscape plots have already been changed to recreational landscape overgrown with shrubs and trees. Nevertheless, in order to preserve traditional orchard landscape structure and their scenery for future generations, we must institute new instruments to preserve traditional orchard landscape and its biodiversity.

Collectivization of agriculture (1950s-1970s) was one of the most important periods in landscape development in Slovakia. Traditionally managed agricultural landscapes, that covered more than half of the Slovak territory, were transformed into large-scale fields and only fragments of traditional agricultural landscapes survived. We mapped the remaining traditional agricultural landscapes using aerial photos and historical maps. We then statistically analyzed the various geographical factors and their influence on the transformation process of traditional and collectivized fields, i.e., slope steepness, soil fertility, distance from settlements and isolation from regional capital cities. The comparison was performed using classification tree analysis. We constructed a set of decision rules that explain why fields were managed traditionally or collectivized. Our findings show that traditional agricultural fields were more likely to persist on steep terrain, less fertile soils, and on locations that were closer to the settlements, but more isolated from the regional capital cities. Steepness played the most important role: small-scale fields located on steep areas were not accessible to heavy machinery and therefore, frequently survived the collectivization. We show that the selected geographical factors are good explanatory variables for the collectivization of arable fields and orchards. For vineyards and grasslands, however, the explanatory power of the selected geographical factors is lower, and we suspect that other factors, not depicted in the analysis play an important role.

Hay-making structures are part of the agricultural landscape of meadows and pastures. Hay meadows are still used and found all over Europe, but their distribution patterns as well as their characteristics and regional features depend on geographical area, climate, culture, and intensity of agriculture. Intensively used hay meadows are the most dominant, using heavy machinery to store hay mostly as rounded or square bales. Traditional hay-making structures represent structures or constructions, used to quickly dry freshly cut fodder and to protect it from humidity. The &lsquo, ancient&rsquo, forms of traditional hay-making structures are becoming a relic, due to mechanisation and the use of new technologies. Both the need for drying hay and the traditional methods for doing so were similar across Europe. Our study of hay-making structures focuses on their current state, their development and history, current use and cultural values in various European countries. Regarding the construction and use of hay-making structures, we have distinguished three different types, which correlate to natural and regional conditions: (1) temporary hay racks of various shapes, (2) hay barracks, a special type of shelters for storing hay and (3) different types of permanent construction and buildings for drying and storing hay. Hay-making structures have been mostly preserved in connection with traditional agricultural landscapes, and particularly in the more remote regions or where associated with strong cultural identity.

Traditional agricultural landscapes (TALs) in Slovakia are mosaics of small-scale arable fields and permanent agricultural cultivations resulting from continuous succession over centuries. The objective in this paper is to develop a strategy for the protection and management of TAL in the Liptovská Teplička cadastral area, which has mountainous arable land and grassland TALs. Driving forces, threats and other trends related to these TALs were identified, based on the valuation of land-use changes, socioeconomic and demographic phenomena and on biodiversity and sociological research. The strategy was oriented towards optimal multi-functional utilization and management of the investigated landscapes

Traditional agricultural landscape structures (TAL) create a mosaic of small-scale arable fields and permanent agricultural cultivations related to the specific regional agrarian culture. Continuity of traditional agricultural utilization was not interrupted in these areas, even during agricultural collectivization. Currently, not only intensive farming, but also increasing urbanization or abandonment threatens the existence of TAL. Research into TAL in Slovakia focused on mapping their distribution and contributing to improvement in the quality of life in rural areas. Herein we present the detailed land use mapping model applied in study areas with preserved TAL. The present state and developmental trends of agricultural landscape and the spatial determination of TAL was demonstrated by detailed land use mapping linked to the 1st and 2nd level of the Corine Land Cover legend (CLC), and by comparison of historical and current land use maps. The largest proportion of extensive farming is maintained in Hriňová, with a significant 15% share of small-block fields and 25% heterogeneous agricultural areas. We also created a set of indicators through which the incidence of TAL in the field could be confirmed, or refuted. Based on the presence of land use elements and according to TAL national classification scheme, the 9 TAL types were determined in these study areas, where their overall share of the total agricultural land area varies from 11% to 50%.

Spulerova J., Dobrovodska M., Lieskovský J., Baca A., Halabuk A., Kohut F., Mojses M., Kenderessy P., Piscova V., Barancok P., Gerhatova K., Krajci J., Boltižiar M.: Inventory and classification of historical structures of agricultural landscape in Slovakia. Ekologia (Bratislava), Vol. 30, No. 2, p. 157–170 , 2011. Historical structures of the agricultural landscape (HSAL) hold a special position among historical landscape structures. The HSAL inventory in Slovakia aimed at countryside mapping entitled “Research and maintaining of biodiversity in historical structures of agricultural landscape of Slovakia”. This was established to provide new knowledge of HSAL distribution and conditions in Slovakia. The HSAL database provides outcomes of field mapping and identification of HSAL and their classification throughout Slovakia. The sum of 626 HSAL polygons was recorded in the field, and a total of 3033 polygons were identified as HSAL based on aerial photos. From a land use viewpoint, 4 classes of HSAL were distinguished under the following classification scheme: (1) Historical structures of the agricultural landscape with dispersed settlement, (2) Historical structures of vineyards’ landscape, (3) Historical structures of arable-land, grasslands and orchards and (4) Historical structures of arable-land and grasslands. The most frequent classes encountered are the Historical structures of arable-land and grasslands, and then the HSAL with dispersed settlement.

This article presents the integrated approach to sustainable land use management based on the assessment of land use and related land cover changes. Land use changes are conditioned by human activities producing changes in landscape cover and initiating processes which cause many environmental problems. It is therefore important to determine the drivers and causality of landscape changes which can then be negated to ensure sustainable land use management. The integrated landscape research approach is based on understanding landscape as a geo-ecosystem with natural, human, cultural, and historical potential. Our aim is to define the aspects of land use management which can regulate social development. The proposal for optimal land use is based on the interaction between natural capital, represented by the supply of natural regional resources and environmental conditions as well as demand represented by community need for development. The conflict between the supply of natural capital and demands lacking respect for landscape resources is an important determining factor in environmental and human problems. The integrated approach is focused on long-term rational utilization of the natural and cultural-historical resources, urban development, and the elimination of current environmental and socioeconomic problems as well as the prevention of new ones. Multi-criteria analysis is required for final environmental decision-making.

The traditional agricultural landscape in Slovakia reflects the history and long-term mutual relationship between the landscape and generations of farmers, resulting in the occurrence of specific agricultural features. The ecological and cultural diversity of traditional agricultural landscape is evaluated using the example of the area around Liptovska Teplicka. This area constitutes a Carpathian montane landscape of steep slopes with small-scale arable fields, grasslands and unproductive elements of plots: balks such as terrace slopes, step bounds, heaps or mounds. Due to heterogeneous natural conditions on the one hand, and specific cultural-historic conditions on the other, there has arisen an agrarian landscape of high landscape diversity and biodiversity. It represents mosaics of unique islands of species-rich plant and animal communities, originated by continuous succession over centuries and dependent on traditional cultivation. We have studied the connections between development of cultural-historic conditions (settlement, land law, social and political environment, methods of agricultural cultivation) and the biodiversity of individual historical landscape elements (plots of arable land, grassland, balks). Our ecological assessment was centred on evaluation of species richness, habitat diversity and vulnerability of species based on vegetation and zoological surveys and existing ecological conditions. The cultural and historical value was determined by the extent of preservation of traditional cultivation techniques and original land terracing with preserved forms of anthropogenic relief, as well as by the presence of small architecture elements.