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Nonlinear effects are both underreported and underrepresented in counseling research. We provide a rationale for evaluating nonlinear effects and steps to evaluate nonlinear relationships in counseling research. Two heuristic examples are provided along with discussion of the results and advantages to evaluating nonlinear effects.

Background Specific phobia (SP) is the most common anxiety disorder among children with Williams syndrome (WS); prevalence rates derived from Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-based diagnostic interviews range from 37% to 56%. We evaluated the effects of gender, age, intellectual abilities and/or behaviour regulation difficulties on the likelihood that a child with WS would be diagnosed with SP. Methods A total of 194 6 – 17-year-olds with WS were evaluated. To best characterise the relations between the predictors and the probability of a SP diagnosis, we explored not only possible linear effects but also curvilinear effects. Results No gender differences were detected. As age increased, the likelihood of receiving a SP diagnosis decreased. As IQ increased, the probability of receiving a SP diagnosis also decreased. Behaviour regulation difficulties were the strongest predictor of a positive diagnosis. A quadratic relation was detected: The probability of receiving a SP diagnosis gradually rose as behaviour regulation difficulties increased. However, once behaviour regulation difficulties approached the clinical range, the probability of receiving a SP diagnosis asymptoted at a high level. Conclusion Children with behaviour regulation difficulties in or just below the clinical range were at the greatest risk of developing SP. These findings highlight the value of large samples and the importance of evaluating for nonlinear effects to provide accurate model specification when characterising relations among a dependent variable and possible predictors.

Neuroendocrine data are typically positively skewed and rarely conform to the expectations of a Gaussian distribution. This can be a problem when attempting to analyse results within the framework of the general linear model, which relies on assumptions that residuals in the data are normally distributed. One frequently used method for handling violations of this assumption is to transform variables to bring residuals into closer alignment with assumptions (as residuals are not directly manipulated). This is often attempted through ad hoc traditional transformations such as square root, log and inverse. However, Box and Cox (Box & Cox, ) observed that these are all special cases of power transformations and proposed a more flexible method of transformation for researchers to optimise alignment with assumptions. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the benefits of the infinitely flexible Box-Cox transformation on neuroendocrine data using syntax in spss. When applied to positively skewed data typical of neuroendocrine data, the majority (~2/3) of cases were brought into strict alignment with Gaussian distribution (i.e. a non-significant Shapiro-Wilks test). Those unable to meet this challenge showed substantial improvement in distributional properties. The biggest challenge was distributions with a high ratio of kurtosis to skewness. We discuss how these cases might be handled, and we highlight some of the broader issues associated with transformation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Purpose The neck disability index (NDI) as a 10-item patient reported outcome (PRO) measure is the most commonly used whiplash associated disorders (WAD) assessment tool. However, statistical rigor and factor structure are not definitive. To date, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) has not examined whether the factor structure generalizes across different groups (e.g., WAD versus non-WAD). This study aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the NDI in these population groups. Methods This study used CFA to analyze NDI baseline-data for WAD (n = 804; 69 % females) and non-WAD (n = 963; 67 % females), each for the full sample and separate genders. Invariance analyses examined the NDI structure across the four groups. Results Across both populations and gender subgroups the one-factor solutions consistently showed better model fit over two-factor solutions. The NDI was best characterized as one-dimensional and invariant across multiple sub-groups. Conclusion The NDI remains a valid PRO in WAD populations that provides acceptable measurement of neck status that is appropriate for basic functional assessment across genders. However, it is recommended that both clinicians and researchers initiate the transition toward more rigorous and less ambiguous PRO measurement tools for WAD patients and research. This future graduated movement toward other PROs should consider both regional PROs and computerized decision support systems, initially measured concurrently with the NDI to establish ways to convert existing scored data prior to their singular use.

Correlation and, more generally, association is a basic staple of inferential statistics, often easily computed with handheld calculators, simple spreadsheet software, and even by hand. Most modern researchers compute correlations and other indices of relatedness without thinking deeply about their choices. Despite being basic in the current pantheon of analytic options, measures of association are important, almost ubiquitous, and can easily produce errors of inference if not utilized thoughtfully and with attention to detail.

Introducción. La hipótesis de Claude Steele sobre la amenaza de estereotipo proponía que los estereotipos negativos de grupo aumentan los niveles individuales de ansiedad, así perjudicando el rendimiento. Sin embargo, el papel de la ansiedad en la amenaza de estereotipo no ha sido explorado plenamente. Este trabajo examina la hipótesis de que una manipulación experimental de la amenaza de estereotipo influiría en medidas, en tiempo real, de la excitación fisiológica y la eficacia cognitiva en chicas y chicos que hacen exámenes de matemáticas.Método. Los participantes eran estudiantes de una gran universidad pública de los EE.UU. Los chicos y las chicas fueron asignados aleatoriamente a condiciones o de alta amenaza de estereotipo o de baja amenaza, y después de un período de adaptación, se les presentó una tarea difícil de matemáticas, a la vez que se registraban sus medidas fisiológicas. El tiempo de procesamiento cognitivo se registró para cada item del examen.Resultados. Los resultados indican reactancia fisiológica significativa (conductancia de la piel, temperatura de la piel, tensión arterial) como function de una manipulación de la amenaza de estereotipo. Los resultados también muestran diferencias significativas en la eficacia cognitiva como function de amenaza de estereotipo.Conclusión. Estos hallazgos son consecuentes con el argumento que las manipulaciones de amenaza de estereotipo o incrementan o disminuyen la ansiedad específica a la situación. Los hallazgos tienen implicaciones importantes para situaciones de examen académico muy determinantes para el individuo, y para otras situaciones.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: The Neck Disability Index frequently is used to measure outcomes of the neck. The statistical rigor of the Neck Disability Index has been assessed with conflicting outcomes. To date, Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Neck Disability Index has not been reported for a suitably large population study. Because the Neck Disability Index is not a condition-specific measure of neck function, initial Confirmatory Factor Analysis should consider problematic neck patients as a homogenous group. PURPOSE: We sought to analyze the factor structure of the Neck Disability Index through Confirmatory Factor Analysis in a symptomatic, homogeneous, neck population, with respect to pooled populations and gender subgroups. STUDY DESIGN: This was a secondary analysis of pooled data. PATIENT SAMPLE: A total of 1,278 symptomatic neck patients (67.5% female, median age 41 years), 803 nonspecific and 475 with whiplash-associated disorder. OUTCOME MEASURES: The Neck Disability Index was used to measure outcomes. METHODS: We analyzed pooled baseline data from six independent studies of patients with neck problems who completed Neck Disability Index questionnaires at baseline. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis was considered in three scenarios: the full sample and separate sexes. Models were compared empirically for best fit. RESULTS: Two-factormodelshavegoodpsychometricpropertiesacrossboththepooledandsexsubgroups.However,accordingtotheseanalyses,theone-factorsolutionispreferablefrombothastatistical perspectiveandparsimony.Thetwo-factormodelwasclosetosignificantforthemalesubgroup(p!.07) where questions separated into constructs of mental function (pain, reading headaches and concentration) and physical function (personal care, lifting, work, driving, sleep, and recreation). CONCLUSIONS: The Neck Disability Index demonstrated a one-factor structure when analyzed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis in a pooled, homogenous sample of neck problem patients. However, a two-factor model did approach significance for male subjects where questions separated into constructs of mental and physical function. Further investigations in different conditions, subgroup

Reiss (1991) described three “fundamental” fears-anxiety sensitivity, fear of negative evaluation, and injury/illness sensitivity-as distinct individual differences underlying fearful reactions. Taylor (1993) evidenced the distinctions, but the results have not been replicated despite developments in theory and measures. Intolerance of uncertainty and pain-related anxiety have since been posited as similarly important, but not established as distinct. The present investigation assessed for the distinctions (1) utilizing contemporary measures; (2) included intolerance of uncertainty and pain-related anxiety; and (3) employed a stringent process for assessing independence. Undergraduates and community members (n = 993; 71% women) randomly completed questionnaires assessing the constructs, with a “standard” format (i.e., each construct assessed as a grouped set of items) or a “random” format (i.e., items from all constructs randomly interspersed). The undergraduates (n = 254; 76% women) also provided data for two-week test–retest reliability. Factor analyses and test–retest reliability supported construct independence and stability across presentation formats. Comprehensive results, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

Internationally, efforts to increase student interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers have been on the rise. It is often the goal of such efforts that increased interest in STEM careers should stimulate economic growth and enhance innovation. Scientific and educational organizations recommend that efforts to interest students in STEM majors and careers begin at the middle school level, a time when students are developing their own interests and recognizing their academic strengths. These factors have led scholars to call for instruments that effectively measure interest in STEM classes and careers, particularly for middle school students. In response, we leveraged the social cognitive career theory to develop a survey with subscales in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In this manuscript, we detail the six stages of development of the STEM Career Interest Survey. To investigate the instrument's reliability and psychometric properties, we administered this 44-item survey to over 1,000 middle school students (grades 6–8) who primarily were in rural, high-poverty districts in the southeastern USA. Confirmatory factor analyses indicate that the STEM-CIS is a strong, single factor instrument and also has four strong, discipline-specific subscales, which allow for the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics subscales to be administered separately or in combination. This instrument should prove helpful in research, evaluation, and professional development to measure STEM career interest in secondary level students.

Large surveys often use probability sampling in order to obtain representative samples, and these data sets are valuable tools for researchers in all areas of science. Yet many researchers are not formally prepared to appropriately utilize these resources. Indeed, users of one popular dataset were generally found not to have modeled the analyses to take account of the complex sample (Johnson & Elliott, 1998) even when publishing in highly-regarded journals. It is well known that failure to appropriately model the complex sample can substantially bias the results of the analysis. Examples presented in this paper highlight the risk of error of inference and mis-estimation of parameters from failure to analyze these data sets appropriately.

The Association of Women's Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN) developed an evidence-based practice program, Setting Universal Cessation Counseling Education and Screening Standards (SUCCESS), to educate nurses and other health care practitioners about smoking cessation interventions, increase the number of practitioners providing smoking cessation interventions, and deliver a smoking cessation intervention program to childbearing women who smoke. The development, implementation, and outcomes of the SUCCESS program are described.

Authors since William James (1892/1968) have implied that the structure of the self-concept can influence motivation and outcomes in particular domains. The value or importance an individual places on a domain influences how motivated that individual is to expend effort in that domain, ultimately influencing the positivity or negativity of the outcomes in that domain (the outcomes then likewise influence the valuing of that domain). Taking the example of identification with academics (selectively valuing an academic domain as central to the self-concept), we review the importance of psychological centrality and present a theoretical model directly linking the structure of the self to motivation and outcomes, something not explicitly discussed in the literature to date. Finally, strategies are suggested for how to increase a student’s identification with academics, which this theoretical framework suggests should lead to improved motivation to achieve in academics and improved outcomes for students.

Many of us in the social sciences deal with data that do not conform to assumptions of normality and/or homoscedasticity/homogeneity of variance. Some research has shown that parametric tests (e.g., multiple regression, ANOVA) can be robust to modest violations of these assumptions. Yet the reality is that almost all analyses (even nonparametric tests) benefit from improved the normality of variables, particularly where substantial non-normality is present. While many are familiar with select traditional transformations (e.g., square root, log, inverse) for improving normality, the Box-Cox transformation (Box & Cox, 1964) represents a family of power transformations that incorporates and extends the traditional options to help researchers easily find the optimal normalizing transformation for each variable. As such, Box-Cox represents a potential best practice where normalizing data or equalizing variance is desired. This paper briefly presents an overview of traditional normalizing transformations and how Box-Cox incorporates, extends, and improves on these traditional approaches to normalizing data. Examples of applications are presented, and details of how to automate and use this technique in SPSS and SAS are included.

ObjectivesInvestigate the relationships between the ability/inability to perform five physical test exercises and the presence or absence of low back pain (LBP).SettingRegional Australian council training facility.ParticipantsConsecutive participants recruited during 39 back education classes (8–26 participants per class) for workers in general office/administration, parks/gardens maintenance, roads maintenance, library, child care and management. Total sample (n=539) was reduced through non-consent and insufficient demographic data to n=422. Age 38.6±15.3 years, range 18–64 years, 67.1% male.MethodsCross-sectional, exploratory, observational investigation. LBP presence was ascertained from a three-response option questionnaire: 0=none/rarely (no) 1=sometimes (some), 2=mostly/always (most). Statistical correlation was performed with the number of the five test exercises the individual successfully performed: (1) extension in lying: 3 s; (2) ‘toilet squat’; feet flat, feet touched: 3 s; (3) full squat then stand up: 5 times; (4) supine sit-up, knees flexed: 10 times; and (5) leg extension, supine bilateral: 10 times.InterventionsNil.ResultsFor the group ‘no-some’, 94.3% completed 4–5 test exercises, while for group ‘With’, 95.7% completed 0–1 test exercises. The relationship between LBP presence and number of exercises performed was highly significant (χ2(10)=300.61, p2(2)=274.626, pConclusionThe ability to complete/not complete five test exercises correlated statistically and significantly with a higher LBP absence/presence in a general working population. Training individuals to complete such exercises could facilitate reductions in LBP incidence; however, causality cannot be inferred. Randomised trials are recommended to establish the potential efficacy of exercise-based approaches, considering these five selected exercises, for predicting and managing LBP.

In quantitative research, it is critical to perform data cleaning to ensure that the conclusions drawn from the data are as generalizable as possible, yet few researchers report doing so (Osborne JW. Educ Psychol. 2008;28:1-10). Extreme scores are a significant threat to the validity and generalizability of the results. In this article, I argue that researchers need to examine extreme scores to determine which of many possible causes contributed to the extreme score. From this, researchers can take appropriate action, which has many laudatory effects, from reducing error variance and improving the accuracy of parameter estimates to reducing the probability of errors of inference.

The survey Performance Standards for In-service Teachers is widely used to help describe teacher skills relating to instructional technology for assessment or planning of professional development. It is based on the six constructs of the National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers, and though used broadly in a variety of contexts, it does not appear to have undergone significant independent evaluation of its psychometric properties. Our analysis found that all six subscales possessed strong internal consistency (all α > 0.93). A subsequent confirmatory factor analysis supported both its current six-factor structure as well as a more parsimonious one-factor model.

Methodologists have written for years about the importance of attending to important details in quantitative research, yet there has been little research investigating methodological practice in the social sciences. This study assessed the extent to which innovations and practices are adopted by researchers voluntarily. In particular, I use the case of power analysis and effect size reporting as the primary example, but I also examine other reporting behaviours. Results show that while observed power and effect sizes in the educational psychology literature tend to be strong, researchers do not seem eager to adopt practices such as reporting effect sizes and power, and neither do they tend to report their testing assumptions or the quality of their measurement. There is room for much improvement in how we attend to the basics of quantitative research, and it does not appear that persuasion and professional communication are effective in changing practice.

Claude Steele’s stereotype threat hypothesis has attracted significant attention in recent years. This study tested one of the main tenets of his theory—that stereotype threat serves to increase individual anxiety levels, thus hurting performance—using real‐time measures of physiological arousal. Subjects were randomly assigned to either high or low stereotype threat conditions involving a challenging mathematics task while physiological measures of arousal were recorded. Results showed significant physiological reactance (skin conductance, skin temperature, blood pressure) as a function of a stereotype threat manipulation. These findings are consistent with the argument that stereotype threat manipulations either increase or decrease situational‐specific anxiety, and hold significant implications for thinking about fair assessment and testing practices in academic settings.

Neuroendocrine data are typically positively skewed and rarely conform to the expectations of a Gaussian distribution. This can be a problem when attempting to analyse results within the framework of the general linear model, which relies on assumptions that residuals in the data are normally distributed. One frequently used method for handling violations of this assumption is to transform variables to bring residuals into closer alignment with assumptions (as residuals are not directly manipulated). This is often attempted through ad hoc traditional transformations such as square root, log and inverse. However, Box and Cox (BoxCox, ) observed that these are all special cases of power transformations and proposed a more flexible method of transformation for researchers to optimise alignment with assumptions. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate the benefits of the infinitely flexible Box-Cox transformation on neuroendocrine data using syntax in spss. When applied to positively skewed data typical of neuroendocrine data, the majority (~2/3) of cases were brought into strict alignment with Gaussian distribution (i.e. a non-significant Shapiro-Wilks test). Those unable to meet this challenge showed substantial improvement in distributional properties. The biggest challenge was distributions with a high ratio of kurtosis to skewness. We discuss how these cases might be handled, and we highlight some of the broader issues associated with transformation. Copyright © 2016 John WileySons, Ltd.

Claude Steele’s stereotype threat hypothesis posits that when there are negative stereotypes about the intellectual capacity of certain (stigmatised) groups, members of that group suffer aversive consequences; group members who are most strongly identified with the stigmatised domain in question (e.g., intellectual or academic ability) are those most likely to suffer the effects of stereotype threat. In education, it is widely held that personal investment in schooling should lead to more positive outcomes. However, highly‐invested individuals will most keenly experience the negative effects of stigma. Thus those most at risk for withdrawing from school among students of colour (who suffer a stigma of intellectual inferiority) could be those most invested in schooling. This hypothesis was tested by measuring identification with academics among a group of incoming students at a racially diverse inner‐city high school in the Midwest USA. Regardless of race, the students who most strongly identified with aca...

Monitoring one's own study processes accurately is important in self-regulated learning. This study compared a treatment (N = 45) and comparison class (N = 39) on the effects of monitoring exercises and feedback on calibration and test performance over a 16- week undergraduate course. Path analyses revealed a significant influence of the intervention on class performance, calibration, and self-efficacy. The results suggest the appropriateness of integrating distributed metacognitive exercises in class content and the fundamental role of monitoring ability in performance-based course outcomes and self-efficacy.

The goal of this article is to present a theoretical model integrating identification with academics, motivation and engagement behaviors, academic outcomes, and violent or deviant behavior. Four different scenarios are presented in which students might be prone to engage in violent or undesirable behavior as a consequence of low or maladaptively high levels of identification with academics. The types of violent behavior likely to result from each scenario are discussed. Because domain identification has been shown to be malleable, this theoretical perspective leads directly to specific actions that might reduce the probability of undesirable behavior, and these actions are discussed.

Objectives To review the literature addressing smoking cessation in pregnant women. To develop the project protocol for the Association of Women's Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurse's (AWHONN) 6th research‐based practice project titled "Setting Universal Cessation Counseling, Education and Screening Standards (SUCCESS): Nursing Care of Pregnant Women Who Smoke." To evaluate the potential of systematic integration of this protocol in primary care settings in which women seek care at the preconception, pregnant, or postpartum stages. Literature Sources Computerized searches in MEDLINE and CINAHL, as well as references cited in articles reviewed. Key concepts in the searches included low‐birth‐weight infants and effects of prenatal smoking on the infant and the effects of preconception and prenatal smoking cessation intervention on premature labor and birth weight. Literature Selection Comprehensive articles, reports, and guidelines relevant to key concepts and published after 1964 with an emphasis on new findings from 1996 through 2002. Ninety‐eight citations were identified as useful to this review. Literature Synthesis Tobacco use among pregnant women and children's exposure to tobacco use (secondhand smoke) are associated with pregnancy complications such as placental dysfunction (including previa or abruption), preterm labor, premature rupture of membranes, spontaneous abortions, and decreased birth weight and infant stature. Neonates and children who are exposed to secondhand smoke are at increased risk for developing otitis media, asthma, other respiratory disorders later in childhood; dying from sudden infant death syndrome; and learning disorders. The "5 A's" intervention and use of descriptive statements for smoking status assessment were synthesized into the SUCCESS project protocol for AWHONN's 6th research‐based practice project. Conclusions The literature review generated evidence that brief, office‐based assessment, client‐specific tobacco counseling, skill development, and support programs serve as an effective practice guideline for clinicians. Implementation and evaluation of the guideline is under way at a total of 13 sites in the United States and Canada.

Steele's (1992, 1997) stereotype-threat theory attempts to explain underperformance of minority students in academic domains and of women in mathematics. Steele argues that situational self-relevance of negative group stereotypes in testing situations increases the anxiety these students experience and that these differential anxiety levels explain performance differences. Research shows that manipulation of stereotype threat can affect academic performance. However, there has been little research testing whether anxiety does at least partially explain the relationship between race and achievement. The goal of this study was to examine whether anxiety will explain racial differences in academic performance and gender differences in math performance in the context of a nationally representative sample of high school seniors. Partial mediation was observed, with anxiety explaining significant portions of the racial differences in academic performance. Anxiety also partially explained sex differences in math achievement, although the effect sizes were very small. These results provide general support for Steele's stereotype-threat hypothesis. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.

Objective To test the effectiveness of an evidence-based clinical practice guideline for neonatal skin care on selected clinical outcomes for newborns in neonatal intensive-care units (NICU), special-care units (SCU), and well-baby nurseries. Design Prospective evaluation of the collaborative neonatal skin care research-based practice project of the Association of Women's Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses and the National Association of Neonatal Nurses. Setting NICU and well-baby units in 51 hospitals located throughout the United States. Participants Member site coordinators (N = 51) and the neonates (N = 2,820) observed during both the pre-and post implementation phases of the project. Method Site coordinators received specialized education in neonatal skin care and implemented an evidence-based clinical practice guideline addressing 10 aspects of neonatal skin care. Baseline observations of skin condition, care practices, and environment of newly admitted neonates were collected by site coordinators. Postimplementation observations were then completed. Main Outcome Measures Skin condition was assessed with the Neonatal Skin Condition Score (NSCS), which ranges from a score of three (best condition) to a score of nine (worst condition), based on dryness, erythema, and skin breakdown. Changes in frequency of selected skin care practices were used to assess the effectiveness and feasibility of using the practice guideline in everyday clinical practice. Aspects of the care environment with potential effect on skin integrity were monitored to determine risk factors. Results Fifty-one site coordinators made 11,468 systematic assessments of 2,464 NICU and SCU newborns and 356 well newborns. Baseline skin scores were better in well newborns compared with premature newborns. After implementation of the guideline, skin condition was improved, as reflected by less visible dryness, redness, and skin breakdown in both the NICU/SCU and well newborns. The guideline was integrated into care, as evidenced by increased use of emollients, particularly with premature infants, and decreased frequency of bathing. A relationship was shown between selected aspects of the environment and alterations in skin integrity. Conclusions Use of the AWHONN/NANN Neonatal Skin Care Research-Based Clinical Practice Guideline was successfully implemented at 51 sites, and effectiveness was demonstrated by changed care practices and improved skin condition in premature and full-term newborns. The results of this project support a wider dissemination of the project's practice guideline for neonatal skin care.

As networks have proliferated, questions have arisen regarding which structure is optimal. To obtain an answer from the hospital perspective, the authors conducted a survey of New York State hospitals to determine how network integration, complexity, and financial risk sharing relate to measures of financial performance during the period of 1991-1995. Of the 64 hospitals indicating a network affiliation by 1995, 67.2 percent listed some network risk-sharing activity. The least integrated networks were associated with the smallest improvements in throughput, and the most complex were associated with the largest negative changes in operating margins. During the first 2 years of network membership, hospitals joining risk-sharing networks experienced operating margin gains averaging 12 percentage points higher than hospitals joining networks without risk sharing; however, this difference dissipated in later years. Networks with higher levels of integration, lower levels of complexity, and which involve some risk-sharing between affiliates are most likely to experience improved hospital financial performance during the network’s initial years.