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Calls for urgent action to conserve biodiversity under global change are increasing, and conservation of migratory species in this context poses special challenges. In the last two decades the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) has provided a framework for several subsidiary instruments including action plans for migratory bird species, but the effectiveness and transferability of these plans remain unclear. Such laws and policies have been credited with positive outcomes for the conservation of migratory species, but the lack of international coordination and on-ground implementation pose major challenges. While research on migratory populations has received growing attention, considerably less emphasis has been given to integrating ecological information throughout the annual cycle for examining strategies to conserve migratory species at multiple scales in the face of global change. We fill this gap through a case study examining the ecological status and conservation of a migratory raptor and facultative scavenger, the red kite (Milvus milvus), whose current breeding range is limited to Europe and is associated with agricultural landscapes and restricted to the temperate zone. Based on our review, conservation actions have been successful at recovering red kite populations within certain regions. Populations however remain depleted along the southern-most edge of the geographic range where many migratory red kites from northern strongholds overwinter. This led us to a forward-looking and integrated strategy that emphasizes international coordination involving researchers and conservation practitioners to enhance the science-policy-action interface. We identify and explore key issues for conserving the red kite under global change, including enhancing conservation actions within and outside protected areas, recovering depleted populations, accounting for climate change, and transboundary coordination in adaptive conservation and management actions. The integrated conservation strategy is sufficiently general such that it can be adapted to inform conservation of other highly mobile species subject to global change., Financial and logistic support were provided by GREFA, IREC, UCLM (Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha), CSIC and MITECO.

Bromadiolone is an anticoagulant rodenticide (AR) commonly used as a plant protection product (PPP) against rodent pests in agricultural lands. ARs can be transferred trophically to predators/scavengers when they consume intoxicated live or dead rodents. ARs exposure in weasels Mustela nivalis, small mustelids specialized on rodent predation, is poorly known in southern Europe. Moreover, in this species there is no information on bioaccumulation of AR diastereomers e.g., cis- and trans-bromadiolone. Trans-bromadiolone is more persistent in the rodent liver and thus, is expected to have a greater probability of trophic transfer to predators. Here, we report on bromadiolone occurrence, total concentrations and diastereomers proportions (trans- and cis-bromadiolone) in weasels from Castilla y León (north-western Spain) collected in 2010–2017, where bromadiolone was irregularly applied to control outbreaks of common voles Microtus arvalis mainly with cereal grain bait distributed by the regional government. We also tested variables possibly associated with bromadiolone occurrence and concentration, such as individual features (e.g., sex), spatio-temporal variables (e.g., year), and exposure risk (e.g., vole outbreaks). Overall bromadiolone occurrence in weasels was 22% (n = 32, arithmetic mean of concentration of bromadiolone positives = 0.072 mg/kg). An individual showed signs of bromadiolone intoxication (i.e., evidence of macroscopic hemorrhages or hyperaemia and hepatic bromadiolone concentration > 0.1 mg/kg). All the exposed weasels (n = 7) showed only trans-bromadiolone diastereomer in liver, whilst a single analyzed bait from those applied in Castilla y León contained trans- and cis-bromadiolone at 65/35%. Bromadiolone occurrence and concentration in weasels varied yearly. Occurrence was higher in 2012 (100% of weasels), when bromadiolone was widely distributed, compared to 2016–2017 (2016: 20%; 2017: 8.33%) when bromadiolone was exceptionally permitted. The highest concentrations happened in 2014 and 2017, both years with vole outbreaks. Our findings indicate that specialist rodent predators could be exposed to bromadiolone in areas and periods with bromadiolone treatments against vole outbreaks., Francisco Díaz-Ruiz enjoyed a postdoctoral research contract “Juan de la Cierva” (ref: FJCI-2015-24949) from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness and a postdoctoral contract funded by the University of Málaga through the grants programme ‘Ayudas para la Incorporación de Doctores del I Plan Propio de Investigación de la Universidad de Málaga’ (Call 2020). Julio Domínguez was supported by a predoctoral grant: “Programa Talento Formación” funded by Fondo Social Europeo (FSE) and Castilla La Mancha regional government (JCCM) (ref: SBPLY/16/180501/000205).

Micromammals have historically been recognized as highly contentious species in terms of the maintenance and transmission of zoonotic pathogens to humans. Limited information is currently available on the epidemiology and potential public health significance of intestinal eukaryotes in wild micromammals. We examined 490 faecal samples, grouped into 155 pools, obtained from 11 micromammal species captured in 11 Spanish provinces for the presence of DNA from Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Blastocystis sp. The presence of Leishmania spp. was investigated in individual spleen samples. All micromammal species investigated harboured infections by at least one eukaryotic parasite, except Apodemus flavicollis, Myodes glareolus, Sorex coronatus and Sciurus vulgaris, but the sample size for these host species was very low. Cryptosporidium spp. was the most prevalent species found (3.7%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.2–5.7), followed by G. duodenalis (2.8%, 95% CI: 1.6–4.6) and E. bieneusi (2.6%, 95% CI: 1.4–4.3). All pooled faecal samples tested negative for Blastocystis sp. Leishmania infantum was identified in 0.41% (95% CI: 0.05–1.46) of the 490 individual spleen samples analysed. Sequence analyses allowed the identification of Cryptosporidium andersoni (5.9%), C. ditrichi (11.7%), C. muris (5.9%), C. parvum (5.9%), C. tyzzeri (5.9%), rat genotypes CR97 (5.9%) and W19 (5.9%), vole genotypes V (11.7%) and VII (5.9%) and Cryptosproridium spp. (35.3%) within Cryptosporidium (n = 17). Known genotypes C (66.7%) and Peru11 (25.0%) and a novel genotype (named MouseSpEb1, 8.3%) were detected within E. bieneusi (n = 12). None of the G. duodenalis-positive samples could be genotyped at the assemblage level. Molecular data indicate that wild micromammals were primarily infected by rodent-adapted species/genotypes of eukaryotic pathogens and thereby have a limited role as a source of human infections. The presence of ruminant-adapted species C. andersoni along with finding C. parvum is indicative of an overlap between domestic/peri-domestic and sylvatic transmission cycles of these agents., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation under projects CGL2011-30274 and CGL2015-71255-P and by the BBVA Foundation under project TOPIGEPLA (2014 call). Additional funding was obtained from the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation under projects CGL2017-89866-R and E-RTA-2015-0002-C02-02 and by the Health Institute Carlos III (ISCIII), Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness under project PI19CIII/00029. David González-Barrio is the recipient of a Sara Borrell Research Contract (CD19CIII/00011) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities. Alejandro Dashti is the recipient of a PFIS contract (FI20CIII/00002) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and Universities. The ‘Grupo de Rehabilitación de la Fauna Autóctona y su Hábitat’ (GREFA) provided partial funding and invaluable logistic and workforce support for samplings in NW Spain, along with many students and staff from the Autonomous University of Madrid (UAM).

The Red-legged Partridge is endemic to the Mediterranean region. It is a resident species from southwestern Europe. Along its range, its abundance is characterized by low abundances in areas with wet climate such as the northern fringe of the Iberian Peninsula and the Atlantic coast of Portugal, France and the UK, and high abundances in areas with a Mediterranean climate such as the southwestern region in Portugal and the central and southern regions of peninsular Spain. The Red-legged Partridge still has a very large range, but their populations underwent a large decline and range contraction starting in the twentieth century and particularly marked since 1970. The reasons for the population decline are related to the loss of habitat caused by agricultural intensification, the risk of hybridization with individuals released from farms, excessive hunting pressure and poor management on use of biocides and pesticides. Efforts made in recent decades to research the Red-legged Partridge have produced results of direct importance in the conservation and management of this species, especially regarding the negative effect of releasing farm-reared partridges on wild populations by increasing overall mortality and the existence of a high number of wild populations with allochthonous lineages, the important role of carotenoids as honest quality signals in the sexual selection and how landscape changes affect the distribution of the species at the geographical level. It is true, however, that important gaps in knowledge remain related to evaluating the time needed to recover a wild population that is not subject to hunting activity based on the influence of game management, habitat structure and predators, the proportion of animals released relative to wild individuals and the effect of climate change on the distribution of the Red-legged Partridge.

[EN] Stress in birds has been widely studied through the measurement of heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (H/L ratio). In this study we aimed to assess for the first time the potential variation of stress, measured as H/L ratio, associated to geography (between-country variation) and seasonality (between seasons and within the breeding season), as well as the leukocyte profiles, in the threatened Dupont’s Lark (Chersophilus duponti), using samples from Spain and Morocco. Furthermore, we tested whether variation in H/L ratio was associated with variables such as population density, presence of blood parasites and individual body condition. We found that H/L ratio did not vary between countries, but individuals captured during the breeding season showed higher values of H/L compared to non-breeding ones. Neither male density, nor date within the breeding season had an effect on the H/L ratio. In Spain, individuals with higher body condition showed lower H/L ratio regardless of whether they were malaria-infected. In Morocco, malaria-infected individuals showed higher values of H/L ratio than the non-infected birds. Moreover, we found that our average values of H/L ratio in Morocco were within the ranges of other passerines, but not in Spain. Individuals with higher H/L ratios may be more stressed or present higher capability to face stressful situations. Although H/L ratio is a useful and relatively easy way to obtain measure of stress, the impact that the environment might have on stress and the way it is explained by H/L ratio must be addressed carefully. This study provides new insight for this species’ biology and provides useful reference information to test the status and survival of other populations., [DE] Stress bei Vögeln ist durch die Messung des Verhältnisses von Heterophilen zu T-Lymphozyten (H/L-Verhältnis) umfassend untersucht worden. In dieser Studie wollten wir zum ersten Mal die potentiellen Veränderungen des Stresses in Verbindung mit der Geografie (Unterschiede zwischen einzelnen Ländern) und der Saisonalität (zwischen den Jahreszeiten und innerhalb der Brutsaison), gemessen als H/L-Verhältnis, sowie die Leukozytenprofile bei der bedrohten Dupontlerche (Chersophilus duponti) anhand von Proben aus Spanien und Marokko bewerten. Darüber hinaus haben wir untersucht, ob das H/L-Verhältnis mit Variablen wie der Populationsdichte, dem Vorhandensein von Blutparasiten und der individuellen physischen Verfassung zusammenhängt. Wir stellten fest, dass das H/L-Verhältnis zwischen den einzelnen Ländern nicht variierte, aber die während der Brutzeit gefangenen Tiere höhere H/L-Werte aufwiesen als nicht brütende Tiere. Weder die Dichte an Männchen, noch der Zeitpunkt innerhalb der Brutsaison hatten einen Einfluss auf das H/L-Verhältnis. In Spanien wiesen Tiere mit einer besseren physischen Verfassung ein niedrigeres H/L-Verhältnis auf, unabhängig davon, ob sie mit Malaria infiziert waren. In Marokko zeigten malariainfizierte Vögel höhere Werte des H/L-Verhältnisses als nicht infizierte. Außerdem stellten wir fest, dass unsere Durchschnittswerte für das H/L-Verhältnis in Marokko innerhalb der Werte für andere Sperlingsvögel lagen, nicht aber in Spanien. Tiere mit einem höheren H/L-Verhältnis sind möglicherweise gestresster oder besser in der Lage, mit Stresssituationen umzugehen. Obwohl das H/L-Verhältnis ein nützliches und relativ einfach zu beschaffendes Maß für Stress ist, muss der eventuelle Einfluss der Umwelt auf Stress und die Möglichkeiten, diesen durch das H/L-Verhältnis zu erklären, sorgfältig untersucht werden. Diese Untersuchung bietet neue Einblicke in die Biologie dieser Art und liefert nützliche Referenzinformationen für die Bestimmung des aktuellen Status und für das Überleben anderer Populationen., Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature., This study was partially funded by the authors, the Spanish Ministry of Environment (MMA; J.J. Areces and B. Heredia), the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation (AECI), and the LIFE Ricoti (LIFE15-NAT-ES-000802), supported by the European Comisison. D.B.R. was supported by FPI-UAM fellowship from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), and the collaboration of the Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC-CSIC-UCLM). We wish to thank the Servicio de Vida Silvestre of Conselleria D’infraestructures, Territori i Medi Ambient (Generalitat Valenciana) and the Moroccan government for ringing permits and supporting our work. We thank V. Garza, A. Ramírez, R. del pozo, E. Juarez, E.L. García de la Morena, F. Suárez, M. Radi, M. Znari and M. Alouí, and the Colectivo Ornitológico Cigüeña Negra for their help during fieldtrips and arrangements. We also thank two anonymous referees whose helpful comments contributed to improve the paper. This work was approved by the Local Ethical Committee for Animal Experiments of the Autónoma University of Madrid (CEI80-1468-A229).

Wildlife management and conservation requires monitoring of species distribution and population indicators, especially when the unbalanced demographic changes of some species can affect the whole ecosystem functioning. The populations of wild boar (Sus scrofa) have, over the past few decades, undergone an expansion around the world, reaching situations of overabundance that can cause serious economic, ecological and health problems. This numerical increase of wild boar and its new spatial invasion can affect certain vulnerable species in sensitive ecological zones, such as the main inland wetland complex in SW Europe. In this context, we aim to (i) examine the association of wild boar abundance and that of lagomorphs, and waterbird productivity, controlling the possible effects of wild carnivores and other environmental predictors, and (ii) applying a survey method useful for managers to evaluate expected effect of wild boar abundance. Overall, the presence of wild boar has been detected in 80.8% of the monitored wetlands (n = 26), but a high variation of abundance rates was found. Wild boar abundance negatively associated with the productivity of the entire community of waterbirds, a priori highly vulnerable, breeding on shores or islands, both colonially (genus Gelochelidon, Himantopus, Recurvirostra, Sternula, Glareola, Tringa and Phoenicopterus) or solitary (genus Anas, Spatula, Mareca, Charadrius, Vanellus, Anser, Ardea, Aythya, Fulica, Netta, Oxyura and Tadorna). In addition, we evidenced a clear negative association of wild boar and wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) population abundance in the monitored wetlands. Rabbits are a keystone species in the study area and represent stable prey for many endangered predators. Our results suggest that potential impacts caused by high wild boar abundance may be already reaching unsustainable levels for some wetlands. Inter-species integrated monitoring is key to address the population management plans of wild boar populations in wetlands and to preserve the most vulnerable species., The present work has benefited from financial support of LIFE project “Humedales de la Mancha”. JAB and AJC were supported by a “Juan de la Cierva” contract (FJCI-2015-23643 and FJCI-2017-33114) from MINECO-UCM and MINECO-UCLM, respectively.

Although roads are widely seen as dispersal barriers, their genetic consequences for animals that experience large fluctuations in population density are poorly documented. We developed a spatially paired experimental design to assess the genetic impacts of roads on cyclic voles (Microtus arvalis) during a high-density phase in North-Western Spain. We compared genetic patterns from 15 paired plots bisected by three different barrier types, using linear mixed models and computing effect sizes to assess the importance of each type, and the influence of road features like width or the age of the infrastructure. Evidence of effects by roads on genetic diversity and differentiation were lacking. We speculate that the recurrent (each 3–5 generations) episodes of massive dispersal associated with population density peaks can homogenize populations and mitigate the possible genetic impact of landscape fragmentation by roads. This study highlights the importance of developing spatially replicated experimental designs that allow us to consider the large natural spatial variation in genetic parameters. More generally, these results contribute to our understanding of the not well explored effects of habitat fragmentation on dispersal in species showing “boom-bust” dynamics., This study was funded by I+D National Plan Projects of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (TOPILLAZO-CGL2011-30274 and MOVITOPI-CGL2015-71255-P), Fundación BBVA Research Project TOPIGEPLA (2014 call) and MAPAMA/TRAGSATEC to GREFA (biological control program). Julio C. Dominguez was supported by a predoctoral grant: “Programa Talento Formación” funded by Fondo Social Europeo (FSE) and Castilla La Mancha regional government (JCCM) (ref:SBPLY/16/180501/000205).

Parent–offspring conflict theory predicts that offspring seek to prolong the parental care period, while parents strive to shorten it as much as possible. Transition to the crèche phase in penguins involves changes in the dynamic of parental investment in chicks, and thus may be modulated by interests that benefit parent or offspring. We explored parent–offspring interactions in the Chinstrap Penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) to understand the influence such interactions would have on transition to crèche phase. We studied the effect of hatching date, nestling age, brood size, and nest location on parent–offspring interactions and the length of the guard phase. All behavioral variables related to nestling demands for parental investment increased as well as parental aggression towards their chicks, with increased nestling age. Brood size showed significant effects on both nestling and parental behavior. Hatching date was negatively correlated with the age at crèche. Consequently, the decision to leave the chicks unguarded seemed to be more based on the condition of adults rather than of the chicks. Given the short time available for breeding in Antarctica and that penguins are long-lived birds with several opportunities to breed, there may be conflicting selective factors between investment in feeding chicks versus extending the period of resource acquisition and storage prior to moult., Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature.

Toxicants such as organochlorine insecticides, lead ammunition, and veterinary drugs have caused severe wildlife poisoning, pushing the populations of several apex species to the edge of extinction. These prime cases epitomize the serious threat that wildlife poisoning poses to biodiversity. Much of the evidence on population effects of wildlife poisoning rests on assessments conducted at an individual level, from which population-level effects are inferred. Contrastingly, we demonstrate a straightforward relationship between poison-induced individual mortality and population changes in the threatened red kite (Milvus milvus). By linking field data of 1,075 poisoned red kites to changes in occupancy and abundance across 274 sites (10 × 10-km squares) over a 20-y time frame, we show a clear relationship between red kite poisoning and the decline of its breeding population in Spain, including local extinctions. Our results further support the species listing as endangered, after a breeding population decline of 31% to 43% in two decades of this once-abundant raptor. Given that poisoning threatens the global populations of more than 2,600 animal species worldwide, a greater understanding of its population-level effects may aid biodiversity conservation through increased regulatory control of chemical substances. Our results illustrate the great potential of long-term and large-scale on-ground monitoring to assist in this task., Hundreds of volunteers and personnel from Spanish autonomous governments (Comunidades Autonomas [CCAA]) participated in the national census of red kites, organized by SEO/Birdlife, with financial support from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the Spanish Ministry of Environment (SME), and CCAA. The database of poisoned animals was compiled by CCAA and SME and coordinated by WWF Spain and SEO/Birdlife through the ANTÍDOTO program. This work was funded by WWF Spain under project UCLM-UCTR170245, and by the BBVA Foundation (“Ayudas Fundación BBVA a Equipos de Investigación Científica 2018”) through the TÓXICO project.

It is known that the garden dormouse Eliomys quercinus includes meat in its diet, however, it is unclear if scavenging is a widespread behaviour, as it is difficult to observe in the wild. Here, we document scavenging behaviour for the species based on direct evidence. We captured five garden dormice with live traps using dead baits, which were partially or totally consumed. Additionally, a camera-trap recorded how at least one garden dormouse visited and actively consumed the bait on 12 occasions during the study. These observations suggest that carrion may play an important role in the garden dormouse's diet, opening a new ecological unexplored topic for this species., This study was funded by projects TOPIGEPLA (Fundación BBVA Research Projects, 2014 call) and Movi-Topi (I + D National Plan Project, CGL2015-71255-P). F. Díaz-Ruiz was supported by a “Juan de la Cierva” research contract (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Funder Id: 10.13039/501100004837, FJCI-2015-24949) from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness.

Understanding spatiotemporal variations of movements and habitat selection by animals living in changing, heterogeneous environments under increasing human pressure is crucial for biodiversity conservation. We report here on shifts in habitat selection and movements during the breeding and non-breeding periods in a vulnerable and specialist bird, the pin-tailed sandgrouse Pterocles alchata, to understand the importance of remnant natural or semi-natural habitats. We used a 7-year dataset from 91 radio-tracked birds living under two contrasting landscapes: a farmland-dominated area (agricultural landscape) in central Spain and a low-intensive farmland area with natural steppe-like vegetation (mixed landscape) in northern Spain. We found that sandgrouse selected sites of natural vegetation (short shrubs and sparse annual plants) across all periods in the mixed landscape. Birds performed long movements in the agricultural landscape to exploit patchy resources and expanded their distribution during the breeding period, possibly because of an increased scarcity of non-cropped habitats in farmland. During the non-breeding period, sandgrouse used dry arable lands in both landscapes, with birds in the mixed landscape displaying a highly mobile pattern to visit dry arable regions. Dry arable lands become structurally more suitable during winter for seed-eating birds such as sandgrouse that can use ploughed fields and exploit seeds during cereal sowing. Effective conservation measures for specialist birds of farmland should promote a greater availability of non-cropped habitats of natural and semi-natural vegetation to enhance their space use and reproductive opportunities., MINECO [CGL2007-66322/BOS and CGL2008-04282/BOS], Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha [PAI08-0171-9582, PAC06-137 and SBPLY/17/180501/000245] and Bardenas Reales Biosphere Reserve [UCTR09-0268, UCTR110053 and UCTR120308]. Juan de la Cierva-Formación [FJCI-2016-28540] to RT and Juan de la Cierva-Incorporación [IJCI-2017-31419] to ABL, Torres Quevedo [PTQ-17-09549] to FC and I3P-CSIC to CAM.

Biological control of rodents in agricultural areas, increasing avian predator abundance by nest-box provisioning, has been proposed during the last decades in several regions around the world as an alternative to the widespread use of anticoagulant rodenticides (AR) to protect crops. However these experiences have often lacked a “Before-After-Control-Impact” (BACI) experimental design providing evidence strong enough about their efficacy reducing vole abundance or crop damages. Furthermore, little is known about possible indirect effects on non-target species. Here we test the effectiveness of providing nest-boxes to common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and barn owls (Tyto alba) in reducing the abundance of two different vole species using indirect index methods to estimate rodent abundance in late spring (May). We monitored the abundance of both vole species in a treatment (with nest boxes) and control (without nest boxes) areas during three years in alfalfa fields, using a BACI design. We studied also the efficiency of this control method in three different crops (alfalfa, cereal and fruit-trees) during the last year of the experiment. We compare the results obtained in this study area in NE Spain with those obtained simultaneously in other three experimental areas in NW Spain. Finally we explored potential negative effects of this method on the abundance of several passerine birds present in our research area. Our results showed a clear-cut reduction in the abundance of the two vole species, the common vole (Microtus arvalis) and the mediterranean-pine vole (Microtus duodecimcostatus) in the experimental area after applying the treatment (nest box installation) in alfalfa crops. We also found a significant decrease in the presence of both species of voles on fruit-tree plantations and alfalfa crops but we did not find significant effects in the cereal fields, where voles were in general very scarce. These results suggest higher efficacy of biological control in this study area than in some areas of NW Spain, what could be explained by several non-exclusive hypotheses presented in the discussion. For other species, we found a negative effect of nest-boxes on the abundance of a limited number of common bird species, but also positive effects over other species using poles with nest-boxes as perches. In conclusion, under the conditions of our study area, nest-box provisioning seemed to be an effective technique to reduce vole abundance, but also had some undesired side-effects on non-target species. However, these side-effects affected mainly to common bird species and can thus be considered less relevant than those caused by SGARs, often affecting to endangered rodent predators and that could thus have negative effects over any potential future natural control of vole abundance, potentially increasing future needs of SGAR use in a vicious circle., This study contributes to the research projects TOPIGEPLA, funded by BBVA Foundation and MOVITOPI (CGL2015-71255-P) funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain.

Productivity (offspring production) is a key demographic parameter influencing population dynamics, particularly in r-strategy species, and thus critical for implementing well-based management of populations. Accordingly, the study of factors influencing productivity is useful to develop management strategies in species of conservation concern or subject to exploitation. We studied productivity (covey size and young/adult ratio) of red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) in Spain through a large-scale sampling in Andalucia and Castilla-La Mancha, two large areas in central-southern Spain, the core of the distribution of the species. We evaluated potential environmental factors related with productivity that have been considered important in previous local studies (weather, land use, and intensity of releases of farm-reared partridges), using a dataset of 15,357 observations of partridges over three breeding seasons (2010, 2011, and 2012). Average productivity at the end of July was 3 young/adult, indicating 50% chick mortality between hatching and fledging and high breeding failure. We found marked effects of weather, year, and land use on partridge productivity, confirming some previous results at local scale and supporting widespread and simultaneous effects of these factors. We also detected a large-scale negative relationship with farm-bred partridge release intensities, with lower young/adult ratios in areas with high release intensity. This suggests that partridge releases may be contributing to the decline of wild populations. Our results support that correcting the effects of agricultural intensification is the main key to the long-term conservation of the species and suggest that, in dry spring years (leading to low average productivity), many populations could be exposed to overhunting. These results stress the importance of both small- and large-scale adjustments of hunting pressure to partridge productivity, in order to preserve wild populations. Poor hunting bags in “bad” years, along with the increasing demand in the hunting market, may have stimulated the widespread use of releases, further reducing productivity and leading to the current compromised conservation status of wild populations. We discuss some potential solutions to this conflicting situation from the socioeconomic and environmental points of view., This work has been made possible by the Project: “Monitoring for the determination of egg-laying dates of red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa” funded by the Regional Governments of Castilla-La Mancha and Andalucia.

[EN]: For pest management strategies to effectively prevent crop damage while at the same time causing the least environmental collateral damage, reliable abundance monitoring tools are required. The common vole is a major agricultural pest in Castilla y León (NW Spain). In this study we compared common vole density estimates provided by two indirect indices, the Presence Signs per Square (PSpS) index, previously evaluated by a comparison with the trapping methodology most accepted to estimate rodent densities, and another one (MI), proposed by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture Food and Environment, which is currently recommended as main monitoring tool for this pest, but that apparently has not been evaluated in a similar way. We found that at low vole abundance, MI generated much larger vole density estimates (on average 14 times) as compared to PSpS, although both indices were highly correlated. These results strongly support that abundance estimates provided by MI must be considered potential overestimates of real vole density and must be corrected accordingly in the future, if the method is to be kept as a main monitoring tool of vole density. Our results reinforce the importance of evaluating this kind of monitoring tools in different density scenarios to prevent the start or continuation of control campaigns when they are unnecessary, thus reducing their associated economic and environmental costs., [ES]: Uno de los aspectos más importantes a la hora de mejorar la gestión de plagas y reducir de forma eficaz los daños que causan en cultivos, minimizando a su vez los daños colaterales causados al medio ambiente, es disponer de herramientas de monitorización fiables. El topillo campesino es una de las plagas agrarias mas importantes en Castilla y León (NO de España). En el presente estudio se compararon las estimaciones de densidad del topillo campesino obtenidas mediante dos índices indirectos: el índice PSpS (Presence Signs per Square) previamente evaluado con la metodología de trampeo considerada mas fiable para estimar densidades de roedores, y el índice MI propuesto por el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, recomendado como principal herramienta de monitorización de dicha especie, pero para el que no existe aparentemente ninguna evaluación de precisión o eficacia. En condiciones de baja abundancia de topillo campesino se observó que el índice MI estimaba densidades de topillos muy superiores a las proporcionadas por el índice PSpS (14 veces mayores en promedio), aunque ambos índices estaban altamente correlacionados entre sí. Estos resultados indican que el índice MI tiene una alta probabilidad de sobreestimar la abundancia de topillos en condiciones de densidad baja. En conclusión, las estimaciones de abundancia obtenidas con el índice MI deben ser consideradas como sobreestimaciones potenciales de la densidad real del topillo campesino, debiendo ser corregidas si se quiere mantener dicho índice como la principal herramienta para monitorizar las poblaciones de topillo campesino. Los resultados obtenidos refuerzan la importancia de evaluar la eficacia y precisión de este tipo de herramientas, para reducir el riesgo de realizar campañas de control innecesarias, minimizando así los costes económicos y ambientales asociados a las mismas., This research was funded by the ERA-Net BiodivERsA, with the national funders MICINN, MEEDDTL, NERC and RCN, as part of the 2007 BiodivERsA call for research proposals through project Ecocycles. D.J. enjoyed a PhD grant JAE Predoc, from the CSIC, jointly funded by the European Social Fund. This study also contributes to the projects TOPILLAZO (CGL2011-30274/BOS), funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain, and TOPIGEPLA, funded by BBVA Foundation.

BACKGROUND Vole outbreaks have been extensively described, along with their impacts on humans, particularly in agricultural areas. The use of rodenticides is a common legal practice to minimise crop damage induced by high vole density for biocidal use. However, rodenticides can have negative direct and indirect impacts on non-target species that feed on voles. We studied whether the use of a second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (SGAR), bromadiolone, can be detected in the blood of fledglings of wild common kestrels Falco tinnunculus in two areas of central Spain, exploring its possible indirect effects. RESULTS We found that 16.9% of fledglings had a detectable concentration of bromadiolone in their blood, with an average concentration of 0.248 ± 0.023 ng mL−1. Fledglings with bromadiolone in their blood, regardless of the concentration, had 6.7% lower body mass than those without detectable bromadiolone. CONCLUSION The use of bromadiolone was detectable in the blood of alive non-target species. Detected bromadiolone in blood may reduce the body condition of nestlings, potentially reducing their fitness. The source of bromadiolone found in nestlings needs to be determined in future studies to derive accurate management advice. However, we urge the discontinuation of official SGAR distribution to farmers and their use in agrarian lands to minimise damage of voles on crops, particularly where common kestrels breed, and encourage the use of alternative effective practices. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry

Understanding how species respond to disturbance in human-modified ecosytems is critical for management and conservation of biodiversity in the Anthropocene. In agroecosystems, human disturbances severely modify the habitat of species, particularly for those that live in burrows. The common vole Microtus arvalis (Pallas, 1778) is a semi-fossorial microtine, which often exhibits large abundance fluctuations, becoming an agricultural pest in peak years. We evaluated how both agrarian disturbances (via types of crop and their management) and landscape heterogeneity influenced the abundance of common vole burrow systems along a yearly cycle, at the field and landscape scales. We seasonally recorded the number of burrows and their recent occupation in circular plots of 200-m radius including different types of crops in intensified agrarian landscapes in NW Spain. Our results showed a marked seasonal and spatial pattern in both total abundance and abundance of occupied burrows. After a population peak year, only 31% of burrows were occupied across the year (from 41% in spring–summer to 12% in autumn). The crop type and its management in relation to soil disturbance were the main factors driving seasonal and spatial dynamics of burrow abundance at the field and landscape scale. Alfalfa fields held the highest abundance of both total and occupied burrow systems across the year, while fields of traditional-tilled cereal retained the lowest. As a result, at the landscape scale, plots with a greater surface devoted to traditional cereal crops maintained a lower relative number of burrow systems. Regarding the landscape structural heterogeneity, plots with longer length of field margins and lower area of watercourses maintained higher abundance of burrow systems. An adequate landscape-scale planning of crop types, agricultural practices, and distribution of non-crop habitats could be a promising sustainable method to reduce the risk of crop-damaging vole plagues., This study was funded by I+D National Plan Projects of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (CGL2011-30274 and CGL2015-71255-P), and the Fundación BBVA Research Project TOPIGEPLA (2014 call).

In conservation biology, population monitoring is a critical step, particularly for endangered groups, such as steppe birds in European agro-ecosystems. Long-term population monitoring allows for determination of species population trends and also provides insights into the relative roles that environmental variability and human activities have on priority species. Here, we compare the population trends of two sympatric, closely related farmland bird species, the Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax and Great Bustard Otis tarda, in a protected area of Central Spain, which is their main stronghold in Europe. Over 12 years of monitoring, the abundance of Little and Great Bustards shifted in opposite directions in our study area. Little Bustard abundance decreased significantly (both males [-56%], and harder-to-detect females [-55%]), while Great Bustard abundance increased significantly (1,800%). Future surveys should be more precise and frequent for Little Bustards to facilitate evaluation of their population status and trends. We recommend annual surveys in 2-3 important locations by region throughout the breeding range for Little Bustards, while for Great Bustard the current regional monitoring programmes would be sufficient., This work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (MCYT-REN2003-07851/GLO, CGL2004-02568/BOS, CGL2007-66322/BOS and CGL2008-04282/BOS) and the Project ‘‘Steppeahead’’ funded by Fundación General del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas from Spain (FGCSIC) and Banco Santander. FC was supported by the Andalucía Talent Hub Program launched by the Andalusian Knowledge Agency, cofounded by the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program, Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (COFUND–Grant Agreement n° 291780) and the Ministry of Economy, Innovation, Science and Employment of the Junta de Andalucía.

A significant restructuring of vineyards is currently taking place in the European Union (EU) as a result of the implementation of a restructuring and conversion of vineyards regulation (CE 1493/1999) in southwest Europe, so that trellis vineyards are rapidly replacing traditional vineyards (e.g., surface area from 18.1 % in 2010 to 34 % in 2015 in Castilla-La Mancha, Central Spain). These changes may influence patterns of space use in birds, which may avoid modified habitats. We assess how the location of traditional and trellis vineyards might influence the distribution of great bustard (Otis tarda), a globally threatened species. We estimate Resource Selection Functions (RSFs) to quantify the relative probability of use of different areas by the great bustards, and use the RSF’s to simulated scenarios of conversion from traditional to trellis vineyards (low - 10 %, medium - 30 %, and high rate - 60 %) to quantify the potential impact of such modifications on the availability of suitable great bustard habitat. Our results revealed that great bustards significantly avoid trellis vineyards, especially at closer distances. Transition scenarios show how an increase in the proportion of traditional vineyards converted to trellis vineyards greatly decrease the proportion of suitable habitat for great bustard. Compared to current conditions, the percentage loss of suitable habitat increased steadily with higher rates of converted vineyards, up to 60 % loss of suitable habitat at the highest rate of conversion. Because the effect of transforming traditional vineyards to trellis vineyards depends both on the amount of habitat available for bustards before the transformation occurs and on the overall area covered by vineyards, a correct estimation of transformable vineyard area will require a case-by-case assessment to assure a low impact on bustard populations. We identified alternative vineyard management options that would mitigate impacts on the great bustard populations., This work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (MCYT-REN2003-07851/GLO and CGL2004-02568/BOS). FC was supported by the Andalucía Talent Hub Program launched by the Andalusian Knowledge Agency, cofounded by the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program, Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (COFUND–Grant Agreement n° 291780) and the Ministry of Economy, Innovation, Science and Employment of the Junta de Andalucía, and by the University of Maryland.

Complex body designs, such as plumage ornaments in birds, can be described by fractal geometry. These complex patterns could have a role as visual signals during courtship and social interactions, but an empirical validation in the wild is currently lacking. Here, we investigated whether the fractal dimension (FD) of a complex plumage pattern displayed by red-legged partridges Alectoris rufa could function as a potential sexual signal. We captured wild birds early in the breeding season and tested if mated and unmated birds differed in the FD of their conspicuous melanin-based black bib. We also tested if the FD of the black bib was correlated within the pair, looking for evidence of assortative mating based on the expression of this trait. We simultaneously assessed similar effects in other ornamental traits (black bib size, white throat patch and black flank band surface, redness of the eye rings and bill). Mated birds showed higher black bib FD values than unmated ones. Mated males, but not females, also displayed a larger black bib. Moreover, the black bib FD (but not the trait size) and the white throat patch surface showed assortative mating. Finally, females with higher black bib FD showed smaller black flank band surface, suggesting a trade-off in the expression of the two melanin-pigmented plumage traits. This provides unique and novel indication for the shape complexity of a pigmented trait, here described by its fractal dimension, to be potentially under sexual selection in a wild animal., A.C. was funded by a Juan de la Cierva-formación postdoctoral grant (FJCI-2015-23536; Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad, MINECO). Financial support was obtained from the projects PII1I09-0271-5037, PII1C09-0128-4724 and SBPLY/17/180501/000468 from the JCCM and CGL2009-10883-C02-02 from Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (Spain). F.C. was supported by the University of Maryland.

In Europe, hunting and game management are centuries-old activities that have had profound effects on the landscapes and the biodiversity they support. Game management is a potentially important tool to enhance game populations and may also affect other wildlife. We investigated the relationship between red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa game management and steppe-bird abundance in central Spain. We surveyed 54 red-legged partridge hunting estates with varying game-management intensity in spring and/or summer in 2006 and 2008–2010. Information about game management was gathered through questionnaires to game managers. Birds were counted from fixed points and the amount of different land uses in each point was visually estimated. Our results show that the abundance of granivorous species (sandgrouse) increased significantly with the density of feeders, whereas non-granivorous species were more abundant in estates with more intensive fox control, although the latter relationship was weaker. Land-use variables, specifically agricultural lands, appeared in the models of all the groups considered. Therefore, there is an option for designing optimal management for red-legged partridge estates that potentially benefits non-target species: an effective combination of habitat management, adequate use of supplementary food and water, and possibly selective legal predator control when necessary and effective for the target game species, although the latter needs further investigation.

The common vole, considered a rodent pest when overabundant in agricultural areas, was traditionally absent from the agricultural plains of Castilla-y-León, NW Spain. However, it rapidly invaded ca. 50.000 km2 of agricultural land, where regular outbreaks have caused crop damages and conflict with farmers. To better understand the factors that triggered this massive invasion of previously unoccupied habitats, we studied the associations between the common vole range expansion and changes in climate and land uses in the region since the 1970s. We found long-term trends in climate, with some changes that could have helped the range expansion (increased fall precipitation and winter temperature) and other changes that may have impaired it (reduced summer precipitation and increased summer temperatures). Dramatic changes in land use also took place prior to and during the invasion period (marked increases in irrigated and green herbaceous crops such as alfalfa, which are preferred habitats for voles). We found strong associations between changes in vole distribution and the extent of green crops (irrigated crops and alfalfa) at regional level. The colonization probability of a given agrarian county increased with the extent of green crops, particularly so when vole presence in neighbouring counties was lower, and tended to decrease with increasing livestock abundance. Land use changes, especially increases in irrigated crops and alfalfa, appear to be amongst the main drivers behind the vole range expansion. We discuss these findings in relation to the social conflicts and management challenges that arose from the recent invasion of agricultural areas by crop-damaging common voles., Funding was from the ECOCYCLES project (BIODIVERSA. ERA-net project, European Union´s 6th Framework Programme for Research); PhD grant JAE-Predoc, from the CSIC, jointly funded by the European Social Fund to DJ. This study also contributes to projects ECOVOLE (CGL2012-35348) and TOPILLAZO (CGL2011-30274/BOS) funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain.

[ES] En el corto plazo, la industria del robot autónomo y de los drones será un factor de desarrollo importante. Tanto la fabricación de los propios dispositivos, como del desarrollo del software que los hace funcionar serán actividades empresariales de importancia en el sector TIC. No obstante, el futuro de los robots de trabajo autónomo es colaborar unos con otros y con el entorno que los rodea (adaptación al contexto). Para ello, deben de ser capaces de interactuar con otros equipos mediante protocolos de comunicación y sistemas de razonamiento. Por ello, en este trabajo se presenta una experiencia encaminada a la obtención de un sistema de trabajo colaborativo para que un grupo/enjambre de robots autónomos de limpieza puedan trabajar de forma conjunta. La experiencia se basa en un laboratorio abierto que permite a los alumnos proponer y realizar sus propios desarrollos. En el trabajo se presentan tanto los aspectos metodológicos de la experiencia, como los avances que se han conseguido realizar hasta la fecha., Este trabajo ha sido parcialmente financiado por el Instituto Universitario de Tecnología Industrial de Asturias (IUTA) a través del proyecto "Desarrollo de un sistema de trabajo colaborativo de robots autónomos de limpieza”.

In southern Europe, traditional hunting has been frequently replaced by models based on more intensive management. These systems include management strategies like the release of farm-reared animals that can cause harmful effects on biodiversity. However, little is known about the hunters’ views of this activity, and about their preferences for the ecological attributes of the hunting estates. We present the results of a choice experiment exercise evaluating the willingness to pay of Spanish hunters regarding different aspects of walked-up red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) shooting, including partridge quality (farm-reared vs. wild) and other attributes related to the ecological characteristics of the estate. We find that, when given the choice, hunting an additional wild partridge in a walked-up shooting day was valued more than 20 times higher than hunting an additional farm-reared bird. The diversity of small game available and the presence of natural vegetation in the landscape in which the walked-up hunting takes place were also significantly valued. Hunters also attributed economic value (albeit lower than other attributes) to the presence of protected non-game fauna in the estate. Overall, our results show that hunters are willing to pay more for hunting on estates that have better ecological characteristics, which may be indicative of good conservation status. This suggests that identifying and promoting such estates could lead to systems that are both ecologically and economically sustainable., This work was supported by the European Commission under the 7th FWP for Research and Technological Development, project HUNT (212160, FP7-ENV-2007-1). M. D-M. is currently supported by a JAE-DOC contract (Programa Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios), funded by CSIC and the European Social Fund (ESF). J.C. had a postdoctoral contract jointly funded by the ESF and by the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla–La Mancha (Spain), Operational Programme FSE 2007–2013.

Irruptive populations of rodents cause damage to agriculture worldwide. By the end of the last century, the distribution range of Microtus arvalis in NW Spain greatly expanded to encompass agricultural habitats, with the appearance of crop damaging population outbreaks. The absence of long term vole monitoring data has so far precluded outbreak forecasting, which might help mitigating associated bioeconomic costs. We used non-standard and diverse sources of information, including newspaper and national technical reports, to describe the vole expansion and outbreak dynamics in NW Spain since the late 1960s. We illustrate a rapid (40 years) regional scale vole dynamics reported for the Iberian Peninsula. We suggest that expansion from (humid) mountains to (dry) plains may be related to recent changes in land use. If confirmed at a local scale, the apparent cyclicity of outbreaks would provide a basis for forecasting outbreak risk in NW Spain and may help managers adjust current control strategies., Financial support was provided by ECOCYCLES project (BIODIVERSA 2008, Era-net European project, EUI2008-03658 and NERC NE/G002045/1). This study also contributes to the project ECOVOLE (CGL2012-35348; Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain).

In the last decades, the release of large numbers of farmed-reared birds became a widespread management practice for game species. The red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) is a quarry species with a high economic impact in rural areas of southwest Europe. In order to increase productivity and produce heavier birds, farmed red-legged partridges have often been hybridized with Chukar partridges (A. chukar), although these species have allopatric distribution ranges. During restocking, hybrid birds may be released into wild populations and may subsequently successfully breed, thus threatening the genetic integrity of native A. rufa populations. In this study, we compared several phenotypic indicators (body size, body condition and physiological state) between >pure> and hybrid partridges in order to evaluate the possible consequences of A. chukar genetic introgression into A. rufa. For this purpose, we captured 115 wild red-legged partridges during the breeding seasons 2003-2005 in four game estates of central Spain. We observed a greater occurrence of hybrid A. rufa × A. chukar partridges nearby the sites where the release of farmed-birds took place. We also found that hybrid males were smaller and hybrid females had better body condition and lower plasma carotenoid concentration than pure partridges of the same sex. Low carotenoid levels in blood plasma might be a limitation for female reproduction (fewer carotenoids available for ornamentation or to allocate to eggs). Overall, our results showed a greater occurrence of hybrids near restocking areas and phenotypic differences between hybrids and >pure> partridge in the wild. Genetic controls of farm-reared partridges should be a key step to prevent the releases of hybrids and ensure the maintenance of the genetic integrity of wild red-legged partridge populations., Fabián Casas was supported by a post-doctoral grant of the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla la Mancha (JCCM), and a JAE-Doc contract of the program «Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios» financed by the European Social Fund (ESF). This work alsoreceived a grant by the research project ‘‘Bases científicas preliminares para un plan de conservación de la perdiz roja en Castilla-La Mancha’’ of the Consejería de Agricultura y Medio Ambiente de la JCCM (Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha), and CYCIT projects MCYT-REN200307851/GLO and CGL2004-02568/ BOS. FM was supported by a Grant from the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Spain (CGL 2006-11823) and from the JCCM, Spain (PAI06-0112).

Habitat selection is an inherently scale-sensitive process in which detected selection patterns frequently depend on the scale of analysis employed. We used a multi-scale modelling approach to identify how the distributions of two sympatric birds are shaped by differential selection at the landscape, land use and microhabitat scales and by human infrastructures as possible sources of disturbance. We studied two threatened steppe birds, the pin-tailed sandgrouse (PTS) and black-bellied sandgrouse (BBS) in central Spain. Land use gradients explained most of the variation in PTS and BBS occurrence, but there was cross-scale interdependence between the lower (microhabitat) and upper (landscape) spatial scales for the PTS. Synergies between the three scales highlighted the importance of integrating habitat scales in a single modelling framework. The process of habitat selection was also modulated by human disturbance. Both species selected ploughs of large size distant from houses, tracks and other infrastructures, although BBS exhibited broader habitat tolerance than the PTS, and was more sensitive to human disturbance. At microhabitat scale, PTS selected ploughs with greater green vegetation cover and insect abundance and fallows with lower dry vegetation cover and height but greater stone cover. This might reflect a trade-off between camouflage (vegetation and stone cover for concealment) and visibility for predator detection and escape. Ploughs and fallows should be maintained by means of traditional 2-year rotations and low management during the breeding season. Ongoing urbanization trends and infrastructure development inside protected areas should be limited. Multi-scale models were key to identify scale-specific factors that determine sandgrouse habitat preferences and conservation requirements at appropriate levels, and are recommended to better guide regional and local conservation efforts of threatened species., This study is a contribution to the CGL2008-04282/BOS Project funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science. A. Benítez-López was supported by the CGL2008-04282/BOS Project and by the 2012-BIN-4462 research Grant conceded by the UCLM. F. Mougeot was supported by a distinguished visitor award from the University of Cape Town (2015).

[ES]: Recopilamos el conocimiento científico actual sobre la ecología y gestión cinegética de la perdiz roja, haciendo hincapié en los hallazgos de los últimos años. La perdiz roja es una especie cinegética muy apreciada, cuyo estatus de conservación ha sido, y probablemente es, delicado. En los cotos de caza menor se dedican grandes esfuerzos a su gestión, pero muchas prácticas se aplican sin conocer las consecuencias que tienen para las poblaciones de perdiz. Los estudios revisados indican que el modelo de gestión más adecuado para aumentar la abundancia de esta especie, manteniendo la integridad biológica de sus poblaciones al tiempo que se cazan, incluye un ajuste apropiado de la presión cinegética a la abundancia anual de perdices, el manejo del hábitat promoviendo la vegetación natural en la matriz agrícola y la presencia de lindes, y el aporte suplementario de agua y comida. La información sobre la eficacia del control legal de depredadores generalistas para incrementar la abundancia de perdiz no es concluyente. Las sueltas de perdices de granja ponen en riesgo la integridad genética de la especie. Además, cuando se sueltan en pequeñas cantidades, no aumentan las bolsas de caza ni la rentabilidad económica de los cotos, pero afectan negativamente a la productividad de las poblaciones silvestres de perdices. A pesar del ocio y movimiento económico que genera la caza de perdiz roja, una gestión inadecuada reduce los beneficios potenciales de la actividad., [EN]: We review scientific knowledge on red-legged partridge ecology and management, focusing on recent studies. Red-legged partridge is a greatly valued game species, whose conservation status has been, and probably still is, poor. In small-game hunting estates, great efforts are devoted to red-legged partridge management, but many practices are applied without knowing their real consequences for partridge populations. Reviewed studies show that the most successful management options to increase the abundance of the species, allowing a sustainable harvest, would include an adequate adjustment of annual harvest to partridge abundance, appropriate habitat management promoting the presence of natural vegetation within the farmland matrix and field edges, and water and food supplementation. Information about the efficacy of predator control to increase red-legged partridge abundance is inconclusive. Releases of farm-reared partridges are putting at risk the genetic integrity of the species. Furthermore, when few partridges are released, releases do not increase annual harvest or estate profitability, and negatively affect the productivity of wild red-legged partridges. Despite leisure and economic movement generated by red-legged partridge hunting, inadequate management is currently reducing the potential benefits of this activity.

[ES]: La caza, como actividad que se ejerce en el medio natural y por la gestión que la acompaña, puede tener efectos en el medio ambiente. Las herramientas de gestión de caza menor más frecuentes incluyen el manejo de hábitat, el aporte de agua o comida, el control de depredadores, o la suelta de animales criados en granja. La información revisada muestra que el mantenimiento o creación de hábitats adecuados para las especies cinegéticas (vegetación natural en la matriz agrícola, paisaje en mosaico o linderos), así como el aporte suplementario de agua y comida, parecen favorecer a otras especies. El control legal de depredadores parece ser beneficioso para ciertas presas no cinegéticas, aunque este efecto no se observa en todas las especies estudiadas. Además, se usan con frecuencia métodos de control ilegales con efectos muy negativos en depredadores protegidos. La gestión demasiado intensiva, sobre todo cuando está basada en la suelta de animales de granja, parece perjudicar a determinadas especies de aves. Las molestias asociadas a la caza (ruido, presencia de humanos o perros) también perjudican a ciertas aves no cinegéticas. Estos resultados sugieren que una gestión que combine el mantenimiento de hábitats adecuados, un uso apropiado de bebederos y comederos, una caza basada en poblaciones naturales sostenibles (sin suelta de animales criados en granja), la regulación de la presión de caza, el mantenimiento de zonas de reserva, y en algunos casos un control de depredadores legal y selectivo, podría beneficiar a otras especies de interés para la conservación., [EN]: Hunting, as an activity implemented over wildlife, and because of its associated management, can have effects on other species. Most frequently used management tools for small game includes habitat modifications, provision of supplementary food or water, predator control or release of farm-reared animals. Information reviewed shows that maintaining appropriate habitats for game animals (a heterogeneous landscape with natural vegetation patches within the farmland matrix, vegetation along field edges) and provision of supplementary food and water frequently benefit non-game species. Predator control could be beneficial for certain non-game prey, but this effect is not observed in all studied species. In addition, this tool is associated with the use of illegal methods with very detrimental effects on protected predators. Very intensive management, particularly when based on releases of farm-reared animals, is apparently detrimental for certain species. Disturbance associated with hunting activities also appear to have negative effects on some non-game species. These results show that management combining conservation of adequate habitats, an appropriate use of feeders and water points, hunting based on wild populations (without releases of farm-reared animals), regulating hunting pressure, maintaining hunt-free reserves within the hunting estates, and sometimes the use of a legal and selective predator control, could benefit other species of conservation concern.

The red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) is the most important gamebird in Spain. Due to population declines in recent decades, management approaches increasingly include the release of farm-reared partridges and the establishment of so-called intensive estates, where hunting is based on put-and-take partridges. The release of farm-reared partridges is controversial because these birds negatively affect wild populations. However, according to managers, releases are necessary to maintain commercial hunting. We analysed economic parameters using data provided by 20 red-legged partridge hunting estates with different management and economic aims in central Spain. We calculated total revenues, total expenses, benefits and profitability of these estates and simulated results under two different scenarios (prices for buying farm-reared partridges being 15 % higher and prices for hunting in estates not using releases being 15 % higher) attempting to mimic the internalization of some ecological costs of farm-reared birds or possible rewards from using wild populations sustainably. Non-commercial estates (n = 5), as expected, just broke even, with almost no benefits. Benefits of intensive estates, where massive releases throughout the hunting season allow a much higher harvest, were on average an order of magnitude higher (20,404 ± 24,413 €/km, n = 8) than those of other commercial estates (1713 ± 1280 €/km, n = 7). Benefits of non-intensive commercial estates using releases were on average lower than those of commercial estates without releases. In fact, profitability of non-intensive commercial estates not using releases was similar to that of intensive estates. Any of the two price scenarios considered led to non-intensive commercial estates not using releases being the most profitable on average. Thus, efforts should be made to identify ways of improving economic profitability of non-intensive estates, which may be important for promoting hunting management styles that are ecologically more beneficial., Work was supported by the European Commission (7th Framework Programme for R&D through project HUNT, 212160, FP7-ENV-2007-1), JCCM through project ‘Efecto del medio natural, las prácticas agrícolas, ganaderas y de gestión cinegética sobre las poblaciones de caza menor en los cotos pertenecientes a la Asociación de cotos de caza Sierra de Alcaraz Campo de Montiel’, and by CSIC (PIE 201330E105). S. Díaz Fernández had a predoctoral grant funded by the European Social Fund (ESF) and by JCCM (Operational Programme PRINCET 2005-2010). M. Delibes-Mateos is supported by the V Plan Propio de Investigación of the University of Seville.

Human recreational activities are becoming increasingly widespread and frequent, a fact that may potentially exacerbate their effects on wildlife. These human-related disturbances on animals may induce behavioural and physiological changes that can ultimately affect their fitness, showing a similar anti-predator response that against natural predator or other threats. Here, we combine the use of behavioural and physiological approaches to assess the potential effect of winter human activities on a threatened farmland bird in Europe, the pin-tailed sandgrouse (Pterocles alchata). We compared before, during and after weekend variations in human activity rates, pin-tailed sandgrouse behaviour (flocking and flying behaviour, interspecific association in mixed flocks and habitat use) and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations. Human disturbances, in particular those associated with hunting activities, peaked during weekends. Sandgrouse showed significant behavioural changes (increased sandgrouse-only flock sizes, increased proportion of birds flying and changes in habitat use) during weekends and higher faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations after the weekends compared with during or before weekends. Therefore, physiological stress levels could be modulated by behavioural adjustments such as increased flock sizes and changes in habitat use that may allow sandgrouse to cope with increased human disturbance rates during weekends. Nevertheless, temporal and spatial organization of hunting days among groups of estates might be good strategies to buffer these potential adverse effects on wintering pin-tailed sandgrouse and other steppe species of conservation concern, while preserving a socio-economically important activity such as hunting., This study is a contribution to projects funded by the Dirección General de Investigación (projects CGL2007-429 66322/BOS and CGL2008-04282/BOS), Consejería de Educación y Ciencia de Castilla-La Mancha (projects PAI08-0171-9582 and PAC06-137), Comunidad de Madrid and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CCG10-UAM/AMB-5325), Spanish Ministry of Science (CGL2008-04282/BOS and CGL2009-13029/BOS) and REMEDINAL2 network of the CAM (S-2009/AMB/1783). FC was supported by the Andalucía Talent Hub Program launched by the Andalusian Knowledge Agency, cofounded by the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program, Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (COFUND–Grant Agreement n° 291780) and the Ministry of Economy, Innovation, Science and Employment of the Junta de Andalucía, and a JAE-Doc contract funded by CSIC and the European Social Fund (ESF). ABL was supported by the CGL2008-04282/BOS project and by the 2012-BIN-4462 research grant conceded by the UCLM and RT by a PhD grant from the Spanish Ministry of Education (FPU-grant no. AP2009-0762).

BACKGROUND: Ecologically based rodent pest management using biological control has never been evaluated for vole plagues in Europe, although it has been successfully tested in other systems. The authors report on the first large-scale replicated experiment to study the usefulness of nest-box installation for increasing the breeding density of common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and barn owls (Tyto alba) as a potential biological control of common vole (Microtus arvalis) abundance in agricultural habitats in north-western Spain. RESULTS: The results show that: (1) population density of both predator species increased in response to both nest-site availability and vole density; (2) voles are a major prey for the common kestrels during the breeding period; (3) vole density during the increase phase of a population cycle may be reduced in crop fields near nest boxes. CONCLUSION: The installation of nest boxes provides nesting sites for barn owls and kestrels. Kestrel populations increased faster than in areas without artificial nests, and the common vole was one of their main prey during the breeding season. The results suggest that local (field) effects could be found in terms of reduced vole density. If so, this could be an environmentally friendly and cheap vole control technique to be considered on a larger scale. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry

A basic rule to attain sustainable use of harvested resources is to adjust take to availability. Populations of red-legged partridges in Spain have decreased in recent decades, and releases of farm-bred partridges to improve short-term availability are increasingly common. We used questionnaires and bird surveys to assess whether harvest was related to availability of wild partridges or intensity of farm-bred partridge releases. We studied 50 hunting estates, including 6 administratively labeled as intensive (with few numerical and temporal restrictions to releases). In addition, we considered hunting pressure (number of hunters × hunting days/km2) and habitat as explanatory variables in the analyses. In intensive estates, annual harvest was exclusively related to release intensity, indicating that in these estates hunting is detached from natural resources and approaches an industrial activity based on external inputs. In non-intensive estates, harvest was affected by wild stock availability, walked-up shooting pressure, and habitat (greater harvest in estates with more Mediterranean shrubland). In these estates, releases did not increase annual harvest, and can be considered an inefficient practice. Additionally, the relationship between abundance estimates and harvest disappeared in estates with low partridge abundance estimates, suggesting possibilities for overharvesting in a large proportion of estates. Increasing the abundance of wild red-legged partridge through techniques like habitat management, and improving the adjustment of harvest to availability, may be a good strategy to increase long-term harvest in non-intensive estates. Additionally, Government and managers must create ways to segregate and label the estates where only wild red-legged partridges are managed from those where releases are used, to reduce ecological costs of management decisions., This work was supported by the European Commission under the 7th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development through project HUNT (212160, FP7-ENV-2007-1) and the Consejería de Agricultura of Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (JCCM).

Hyperpredation can be described as a restrictive case of apparent competition where an increased number of primary prey species indirectly induces the decrease of the secondary prey species through numerical response of predators to the primary prey dynamics. It has been proposed that rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD), which decimated populations of European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Spain, led to prey switching by raptors towards red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) causing declines in their populations as a peculiar case of hyperpredation. We have reviewed field studies that disagree with estimates (based on bag records) of recent increases of rabbit and partridge numbers in Spain. Because of an increase in releases of farm-reared animals, there is doubt about the use of bag records to accurately estimate population trends in recent decades. We also provide new data and discuss some analytical considerations related to the temporal and spatial scales that might affect the interpretation of data. Finally, we discuss why studies associated with raptor food habits, predator population dynamics and predator distribution suggest that diet data are not sufficient to link patterns and processes. Although we agree that the RHD outbreak has markedly affected rabbit populations, which has indirectly affected many other species in the Iberian Peninsula, we consider that hyperpredation mediated by raptors has not been clearly demonstrated. In contrast, endorsing the hypothesis of raptor-mediated hyperpredation without sufficient proof may have conflictive consequences if we consider the increased persecution of raptors in recent decades in Spain., J.A. Blanco-Aguiar was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (SFRH/BPD/65464/2009) grant. M. Delibes-Mateos was supported by a Juan de la Cierva research contract awarded by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación—Fondo European Social Fund. F. Casas was supported by a postdoctoral grant of the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla la Mancha (JCCM).