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Play is a significant aspect of preschool curricula. We report two studies that examine the effects of play-related variables: length of free play, type of language instructional approach, degree of structure of free play, and amount of teacher involvement in communication with peers. For each study, we target three dependent variables: rate of utterances, vocabulary diversity, and mean length of utterance. In the first study, neither vocabulary diversity nor language complexity differed between the first and second halves of free playtime, regardless of instructional approach. There was a small but significant decrease in the rate of utterances to peers in the second half of the play period with children in the direct language classroom. In the second study, children increased talking with peers and vocabulary diversity when the teacher structured the play situation but did not participate. Taken together, these two studies suggest that some teacher-provided structure may maximize the peer language interaction of young children with disabilities.

This article describes how a purposeful sample of 62 elementary schools from 17 states implemented a Response to Intervention (RtI) framework for reading. School informants answered surveys and were interviewed about differentiated instruction in Tier 1, screening/benchmarking, where Tier 2 interventions were located, typical group size and the minutes/day of intervention in Tiers 2 and 3 groups, and how students with individualized educational programs (IEPs) in reading were served in the school's RtI model. Schools reported using differentiated instruction in Tier 1, favored curriculum-based measures for screening/benchmarking and progress monitoring, reported more intensive interventions and more progress monitoring in Tier 3, and used a wide variety of models for serving students with IEPs within the schools' RtI models. (Contains 3 tables and 5 figures.)

Response-to-intervention (RTI) approaches to disability identification are meant to put an end to the so-called wait-to-fail requirement associated with IQ discrepancy. However, in an unfortunate irony, there is a group of children who wait to fail in RTI frameworks. That is, they must fail both general classroom instruction (Tier 1) and small-group intervention (Tier 2) before becoming eligible for the most intensive intervention (Tier 3). The purpose of this article was to determine how to predict accurately which at-risk children will be unresponsive to Tiers 1 and 2, thereby allowing unresponsive children to move directly from Tier 1 to Tier 3. As part of an efficacy study of a multitier RTI approach to prevention and identification of reading disabilities (RD), 129 first-grade children who were unresponsive to classroom reading instruction were randomly assigned to 14 weeks of small-group, Tier 2 intervention. Nonresponders to this instruction (n = 33) were identified using local norms on first-grade word identification fluency growth linked to a distal outcome of RD at the end of second grade. Logistic regression models were used to predict membership in responder and nonresponder groups. Predictors were entered as blocks of data from least to most difficult to obtain: universal screening data, Tier 1 response data, norm referenced tests, and Tier 2 response data. Tier 2 response data were not necessary to classify students as responders and nonresponders to Tier 2 instruction, suggesting that some children can be accurately identified as eligible for Tier 3 intervention using only Tier 1 data, thereby avoiding prolonged periods of failure to instruction. (Contains 4 tables.)

In a response-to-intervention framework, schools typically employ a direct route approach to screening, in which students identified as at risk by a screening process are directly placed into intervention. Direct route approaches require screening decisions to be highly accurate, but few studies examining the predictive validity of reading measures report achieving recommendations for classification accuracy. In this study, two approaches to improving the classification accuracy of predictors of Grade 3 reading performance are compared. Findings indicate that the reliance on single screening measures do not result in high levels of classification accuracy. Classification accuracy improved by 2% when a combination of measures was employed and by 6% when a predicted probability risk index was used. Implications for research and practice are discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

Screening for early reading problems is a critical step in early intervention and prevention of later reading difficulties. Evaluative frameworks for determining the utility of a screening process are presented in the literature but have not been applied to many screening measures currently in use in numerous schools across the nation. In this study, the accuracy of several Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) subtests in predicting which students were at risk for reading failure in first grade was examined in a sample of 12,055 students in Florida. Findings indicate that the DIBELS Nonsense Word Fluency, Initial Sound Fluency, and Phoneme Segmentation Fluency measures show poor diagnostic utility in predicting end of Grade 1 reading performance. DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency in fall of Grade 1 had higher classification accuracy than other DIBELS measures, but when compared to the classification accuracy obtained by assuming that no student had a disability, suggests the need to reevaluate the use of classification accuracy as a way to evaluate screening measures without discussion of base rates. Additionally, when cut scores on the screening tools were set to capture 90 percent of all students at risk for reading problems, a high number of false positives were identified. Finally, different cut scores were needed for different subgroups, such as English Language Learners. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The "highly qualified" teaching credential required by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is forcing new models of secondary special education service delivery. One effect has been a reduction in special education content classes and a concomitant increase in co-teaching. In one teaching arrangement, "instructional conferencing," teachers work individually with students in the general education classroom to assist students with assignments and personal development. This model incorporates four general teaching practices which recursively and flexibly address differences among learners, tasks, and contexts. "Instructional conferencing" affords repeated opportunities to build motivation, transform negative attitudes, and reframe students' perceptions of themselves as learners. This transformation occurs gradually as learners succeed on larger and more difficult tasks, develop an academic identity, understand their learning needs, and gain self-advocacy skills. (Contains 1 figure.)

This study addressed three basic questions involving the amount of measurement needed to obtain valid estimates of reading growth. Participants were 41 students with learning disabilities from Grades 3 to 8, monitored across 10 weeks using curriculum-based measurement (CBM) of words read correctly (WRC). We compared growth slopes based on measurements taken weekly, every 2 weeks, every 3 weeks, every 4 weeks to an estimate of "true slope." Results showed that frequency of progress monitoring could be significantly reduced without detracting from the validity of growth estimates. However, validity was negatively affected by minimizing the number of WRC scores collected at each measurement occasion and by employing only one rather than four scores to estimate baseline. (Contains 3 tables.)

This article examines universal screening, one component in a response to intervention approach for serving struggling learners. In a response to intervention framework, screening is the principal means for identifying early those students at risk of failure and likely to require supplemental instruction; as such, it represents a critical juncture in the service delivery continuum. Our focus is students at risk for unsatisfactory reading achievement. We first examine classification accuracy and the factors that affect it. Then, relying on studies conducted since 1998 that examine the classification accuracy of reading screens, we summarize research on candidate measures with potential for identifying students at risk for reading disabilities and identify areas in need of more research. (Contains 4 tables.)

This study examined several aspects of Passage Reading Fluency (PRF) including performance variability across passages alternative designs for measuring PRF gain, and effects on PRF level from retesting with the same passages. Participants were 33 students from grades 2 to 10 attending a school for students with learning disabilities. PRF was measured at three test points. Time-2 tests occurred 10 weeks after time-1 tests, and time-3 tests occurred 5 weeks after the time-2 tests. At Test points 2 and 3, students read old passages (same-passage design) and new passages (different-passage design). Results showed substantial individual variation on concurrent PRF measures, smaller variation in gains measured with the same-passage design, and no passage memory effects (i.e., from retested passages). Results are discussed in relation to measuring reading gains in Response to Intervention models.

This research examined the validity of the theoretical model of reading outlined by the Simple View of Reading when measuring reading ability with a performance-based reading test. Participants were 95 fourth-grade, students randomly sampled from four schools in an urban district. The test we studied employed a mixture of traditional (multiple-choice) and performance assessment approaches (constructed-response items that required written responses). Our findings indicated that writing ability emerged as an important source of individual differences in explaining overall reading ability, even when we deconstructed the test into a multiple-choice-only score.

In a previous study of the differential effects of contrasting early intervention programs on later social behavior (Mills, Cole, Jenkins, & Dale, 2002), we found no differences in self-report of juvenile delinquency at age 15 for children enrolled in direct instruction and child-directed models. These results disconfirmed the conclusion of Schweinhart, Weikart, and Larner (1986b) that direct instruction was linked to higher rates of juvenile delinquency and other social differences. Our previous study was limited to self-report of juvenile delinquency, a very coarse measure of social development, in an attempt to replicate the key finding of Schweinhart et al. (1986b). In the present study, we examine additional measures of social development, which might be more sensitive to subtle program differences, including school satisfaction, loneliness, and depression. We administered a battery of social development measures to 174 children at age 15 who had been randomly assigned at preschool age to the two early childhood models. We found no differences on any social outcome for program type. Across a wide range of social behaviors at age 15, there is no evidence that type of early intervention program differentially influences subsequent adolescent social behavior.

In a previous study of the differential effects of contrasting early intervention programs on later social behavior (Mills, Cole, Jenkins, & Dale, 2002), we found no differences in self-report of juvenile delinquency at age 15 for children enrolled in direct instruction and child-directed models. These results disconfirmed the conclusion of Schweinhart, Weikart, and Larner (1986b) that direct instruction was linked to higher rates of juvenile delinquency and other social differences. Our previous study was limited to self-report of juvenile delinquency, a very coarse measure of social development, in an attempt to replicate the key finding of Schweinhart et al. (1986b). In the present study, we examine additional measures of social development, which might be more sensitive to subtle program differences, including school satisfaction, loneliness, and depression. We administered a battery of social development measures to 174 children at age 15 who had been randomly assigned at preschool age to the two early childhood models. We found no differences on any social outcome for program type. Across a wide range of social behaviors at age 15, there is no evidence that type of early intervention program differentially influences subsequent adolescent social behavior.

We report here cognitive and academic outcome measures at ages 12 and 16 for approximately 80% of a sample of 205 children who had been randomly assigned to 2 programs for developmentally delayed preschoolers, Direct Instruction (DI) and Mediated Learning (ML). There were no main effect differences between programs, but there were aptitude-by-treatment interactions similar to those found earlier: initially lower functioning students benefited more from the ML program, whereas initially higher functioning students benefited more from the DI program. Multiple regression analyses suggested that lower scores on cognitive and academic achievement measures are associated with greater experience in special education, even controlling for preschool period ability measures, gender, and ethnicity. The challenges of interpreting this result are discussed.

This research examined component processes that contribute to performance on one of the new, standards-based reading tests that have become a staple in many states. Participants were 60 Grade 4 students randomly sampled from 7 classrooms in a rural school district. The particular test we studied employed a mixture of traditional (multiple-choice) and performance assessment approaches (constructed-response items that required written responses). Our findings indicated that multiple-choice and constructed-response items enlisted different cognitive skills. Writing ability emerged as an important source of individual differences in explaining overall reading ability, but its influence was limited to performance on constructed-response items. After controlling for word identification and listening, writing ability accounted for no variance in multiple-choice reading scores. By contrast, writing ability accounted for unique variance in reading ability, even after controlling for word identification and listening skill, and explained more variance in constructed-response reading scores than did either word identification or listening skill. In addition, performance on the multiple-choice reading measure along with writing ability accounted for nearly all of the reliable variance in performance on the constructed-response reading measure.

At-risk 1st graders were randomly assigned to tutoring in more or less decodable texts, and instruction in the same phonics program. The more decodable group (n = 39) read storybooks that were consistent with the phonics program. The less decodable group (n = 40) read storybooks written without phonetic control. During the first 30 lessons, storybook decodability was 85% versus 11% for the 2 groups. Tutoring occurred 4 days per week for 25 weeks. A control group did not receive tutoring in phonics or story reading. Both tutored groups significantly surpassed the control on an array of decoding, word reading, passage reading, and comprehension measures. However, the more and less decodable text groups did not differ on any posttest.

Additional analysis of a previously published study involving 128 first-graders with double or triple deficit in language skills (rapid automatized naming, phonological, and orthographic processing) responded more slowly to early intervention than students without language deficits. Verbal IQ-word reading discrepancy did not predict response to early intervention in reading. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Interviews with 21 general education elementary school teachers found they were generally positive about cooperative learning's efficacy for students with learning problems, while acknowledging that it worked better for some students than others. Major benefits were improved self-esteem, a safe learning environment, and better classroom success rates and products. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Twenty-four students with reading difficulties (grade 4) and 85 skilled readers completed a reading comprehension test, read aloud a folktale, and read aloud a list of the folktale's words. Skilled readers read three times more correct words per minute in context and showed higher accuracy and rates on all measures. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

A study examined juvenile delinquency outcomes for 171 children with disabilities participating in two different preschool models, one using direct instruction, the other using a cognitively oriented, child-directed model. At age 15, the groups did not differ significantly in their level of reported delinquency. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

A study compared students at risk for reading disabilities who were provided phonics-based instruction in first grade (n=13), students tutored in comprehension skills in second grade (n=10), and students tutored in both grades (n=26). Students tutored only in first grade performed better than those also tutored in second grade. (Contains references.) (CR)

Twenty-three first-graders at risk for learning disabilities received one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, explicit decoding, writing, spelling, and reading phonically controlled text. Participants significantly outperformed controls on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Description of a tutoring program for struggling 1st grade readers focuses on use of Sound Partners, a program designed for non-teacher tutors. This program emphasizes basic phonological awareness and phonological reading skills. The article describes the program's theoretical ancestry, application, research outcomes, and obstacles/solutions related to implementation. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

A study examined the effects of play-group composition (segregated or integrated) and category of play materials (functional, constructive, or dramatic) on cognitive level of play and language use of 24 preschool children with developmental disabilities. There were no effects for play-group composition, but category of play materials significantly influenced the type of play. (Author/CR)

Attempts to better identify the at-risk children with reading disabilities to aid in early intervention before they encounter the years of reading failure usually associated with a formal diagnosis of reading disabilities. Tries to develop a small set of phonological, letter, and memory tasks that would reliably identify children likely to develop reading disabilities. (SC)

This study compared three levels of inclusion (special education only, integrated special education, and mainstream placements) on the cognitive and language development of 66 preschool children with disabilities. Analysis of pre- to postgains revealed that integrated special education produced gains that significantly exceeded the rate of normal development. Differences were also found in placement effects between lower and higher functioning children. (Author/DB)

The prevalence, conceptualization, and form of cooperative learning used by elementary school teachers are examined. Ninety-three percent of teachers (n=85) from six elementary schools in two districts indicated that they used cooperative learning. However, few were using recognized forms of this practice when criteria from the research literature were applied. (SLD)

Twenty at-risk first graders received 30 minutes of individual instruction from community tutors four days a week for up to 23 weeks. Subjects outperformed the control group on all reading, decoding, spelling and segmenting, and writing measures. Tutors who implemented the program with a high degree of fidelity achieved significant effect sizes in each reading skill area. (Author/DB)

This research commentary offers a rationale for focusing on individual students with learning disabilities (rather than teacher beliefs and behaviors or general achievement) in elementary grade cooperative learning settings. This focus resulted in the finding that many of these students were not having successful experiences and identified classroom teaching factors that fostered success in cooperative learning arrangements. (DB)

Observation of 22 children with mild disabilities (grades 3-6) over 2 years in cooperative learning inclusive settings indicated that only 40% of the students successfully participated in cooperative groups. Differences among classroom practices (for example, selection of partners, teacher monitoring, and establishment of a cooperative ethic) were related to successful cooperative learning experiences. (DB)