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Monitoring dispersal, habitat use, and social mixing of released ungulates is crucial for successful translocation and species conservation. We monitored 127 female bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) released in three populations from 2000 to 2009 to investigate if augmented bighorns expanded and shifted seasonal ranges, used different habitat compared with resident females, and if animals mixed socially. Augmented bighorns in all populations expanded range use compared with residents by shifting utilization distributions. Size of utilization distributions, however, were smaller for augmented females compared with residents in all areas except one. Overlap of seasonal utilization distributions between augmented and resident bighorns and use of slope and elevation differed across populations. In two populations, differences in size and overlap of seasonal utilization distributions and use of slope and elevation supported the hypothesis that habitat use of bighorns in their source area influenced their habitat use after release. Mixing between resident and augmented adult females occurred on average during only 21% of sightings and was similar across populations. Our results clarify how augmented bighorns mix with resident animals and how habitat use is modified following augmentations. Such information is needed to improve bighorn sheep augmentations and can be applied to augmentations of other ungulates.

ContextHuman activity in wildlands can influence wildlife populations by decreasing or degrading habitat, decreasing survival, or through displacement. For bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), some human activities are detrimental and may result in physiological stress, altered activity budgets, or habitat abandonment. From 1979 to 2000, human recreation increased over 300% in areas occupied by desert bighorn sheep (O. c. nelsoni) in south-eastern Utah. Concurrently, the population of desert bighorn sheep occupying the Potash Bighorn Sheep Management Unit of south-eastern Utah was in steep decline. AimsWe investigated behavioural responses of desert bighorn sheep to different levels of human activity in this area from 2002 to 2003. MethodsWe divided the study population into two areas on the basis of the level of human use, i.e. low and high. We observed desert bighorn sheep at seven sites within these areas, including three with a high level of human use and four areas of a low level of human use. Key resultsDesert bighorn sheep spent significantly less time grazing and more time vigilant in areas of a high level of human use than in areas of a low level of human use. ConclusionsHuman recreational use of desert bighorn sheep habitat has the potential to negatively affect foraging by desert bighorn sheep. ImplicationsWe raise a cautionary flag because recreational use in bighorn sheep habitat near Moab, Utah, continues to increase and bighorn numbers continue to decline. When managers consider proposals to increase areas or trails for human recreation, they should incorporate ways to minimise impacts and reduce stressors to bighorn sheep.

Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) often die from respiratory disease after commingling with domestic sheep. From 2000 to 2009, we observed commingling between domestic and reintroduced bighorn sheep in 3 populations in UT, USA. We investigated how commingling affected survival of radio-collared female bighorns that were released initially (founder) and those that were subsequently released (augmented). We predicted that the proportion of young surviving to their first winter and population growth would be lower after observed commingling with domestic sheep. We observed groups of bighorns year-round on 2,712 occasions and commingling between domestic sheep and bighorns in 6 instances. On Mount Timpanogos, survival rates were best modeled as constant for females (n = 57) before and after observed commingling with domestic sheep. Survival rates of female bighorns, however, decreased significantly in Rock Canyon (n = 21) and on Mount Nebo (n = 22) for founder, but not augmented bighorns after observed commingling with domestic sheep. Also, the proportion of young surviving to their first winter was almost 3 times lower and population growth was reduced for bighorns after observed commingling with domestic sheep in Rock Canyon and on Mount Nebo. Commingling between domestic and bighorn sheep reduced population parameters in 2 of 3 bighorn populations we studied; however, on Mount Timpanogos, interactions between those 2 species were not fatal for radio-collared female bighorns. Wildlife biologists should manage for spatial separation of these 2 species and consider the location of hobby farms and trailing operations of domestic sheep near release sites for bighorns.

Understanding anthropogenic and environmental factors that influence seasonal habitat selection is critical in establishing conservation objectives for wildlife populations. However, many resource selection studies provide inferences only for single seasons, potentially masking factors essential to populations during other times of the year. Our objective was to model elk (Cervus elaphus) habitat selection for 4 seasons to identify factors influencing selection within and across seasons. Using aerial relocation data, we evaluated seasonal habitat selection for 46 radio-marked, migratory adult female elk in a 6123-km2 landscape in north central Utah, USA, from 1993 to 1997. We evaluated habitat use and availability within estimated seasonal range boundaries by using binary logistic regression to model habitat selection. Habitat use was measured as a response to predictor variables collected from analysis regions around elk locations. Habitat use was compared to habitat availability by measuring th...

Research indicates that low nest success and juvenile survival may be factors contributing to Greater Sage-Grouse population declines. Recent technological advances in microtransmitters have allowed researchers to moni - tor individual chicks and broods. We initiated a chick survival study in 2006 and used microtransmitters to (1) examine the viability of using microtransmitters on chicks to assess survival, including the effect of handling time during the suturing process; (2) estimate overall chick survival; and (3) compare chick survival in the Strawberry Valley population to other published reports. We used a known-fate model in program MARK to estimate ^ c (overdispersion), weekly sur- vival rates, and 49-day survival of radio-marked chicks. Chick survival rates were lowest during the initial 3 weeks of life, after which point weekly survival stabilized. Survival over 49 days was estimated at 0.25 (SE 0.10) and was comparable to estimates from other populations. Handling time was negatively associated with chick survival, and chicks were 2 times more likely to survive to 49 days when handled for only 5 minutes instead of 19 minutes. We recommend that researchers be judicious in using microtransmitters and make every effort to reduce handling time during transmitter attachment. RESUMEN.—Las investigaciones indican que el bajo exito de anidacion y la supervivencia juvenil del gallo de salvia pueden ser factores que contribuyen a la disminucion de las poblaciones. Los recientes avances tecnologicos en micro- transmisores permiten a los investigadores monitorear individualmente a los polluelos y a las nidadas. Iniciamos un estudio de supervivencia de polluelos en el ano 2006 utilizando microtransmisores con el fin de (1) examinar si se pueden utilizar microtransmisores en polluelos para evaluar la supervivencia, incluyendo el efecto del tiempo de manipu - lacion durante el proceso de sutura; (2) estimar la supervivencia general de los polluelos; y (3) comparar la supervivencia de los polluelos en la poblacion de Strawberry Valley contra informes ya publicados. Utilizamos un modelo de destino conocido en el programa MARK para estimar ^ c (sobredispersion), los indices de supervivencia semanal y la superviven- cia de 49 dias de los polluelos marcados. Los indices mas bajos de supervivencia de los polluelos fueron durante las primeras tres semanas de vida, en este punto, el indice de supervivencia semanal se estabilizo. La supervivencia de los 49 dias se estimo en 0.25 (SE 0.10) y fue comparable con las estimaciones de otras poblaciones. El tiempo de manipu- lacion se asocio de manera negativa con la supervivencia de los polluelos, los cuales tuvieron el doble de probabilidades de sobrevivir a los 49 dias cuando se los manipulo durante solo 5 minutos, en lugar de 19 minutos. Recomendamos a los investigadores que sean cautos al tomar la decision de utilizar microtransmisores, y que, si lo hacen, intenten reducir el tiempo de manipulacion.

Survival of greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) has been well described in large populations across the species range. Very little published information exists, however, on survival rates of translocated sage-grouse or grouse from a long-term (>10 yr) study. Our objectives were to estimate seasonal and annual survival rates; assess differences in survival between resident and translocated, adult and yearling, and male and female sage-grouse; identify environmental and behavioral factors associated with survival; and assess the influence of mammalian predator control on survival rates of radio-marked sage-grouse in Strawberry Valley, Utah from 1998 to 2010. We used a 2-stage model selection approach using Akaike's Information Criterion corrected for sample size (AICc) with known-fate models in Program MARK to evaluate the influences of seasonal, annual, demographic, and behavioral effects on survival rates of sage-grouse. We captured and fitted 535 individual sage-grouse (male and female, resident and translocated) with radio transmitters over a 13-year period and monitored them weekly. The top model of survival, which accounted for 22% of the AICc weight, included 3 seasons that varied by year where rates were influenced by residency, sex, and whether a female initiated a nest. A group-level covariate for the number of canids killed each year received some support as this variable improved model fit compared to identical models without it, although confidence intervals around β estimates overlapped zero slightly. All other demographic or environmental variables showed little or no support. Annual estimates of survival for females ranged between 28% and 84% depending on year and translocation source. Survival was consistently highest during the fall–winter months with a mean monthly survival rate of 0.97 (95% CI = 0.96–0.98). The lack of a control site and other potential confounding factors limit the extent of our inference with respect to predator control. Nonetheless, we suggest managers consider enhancing nesting habitat, translocating sage-grouse, and possibly controlling predators to improve survival rates of sage-grouse. © The Wildlife Society, 2013

Nest-area fidelity is common among many birds including those in the orders Anseriformes, Ciconiiformes, and Procellariiformes. Successful nesting attempts are often associated with a higher probability that nesting adults will return in a consecutive year. Conversely, unsuccessful birds are often less likely to show fidelity in subsequent years. Despite substantial natural history information from across the range of Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), the prevalence of sage-grouse nest-area fidelity remains unclear. Our objectives were to (1) determine if individual female sage-grouse showed fidelity to nesting areas in subsequent years, (2) test whether successful females were more likely to demonstrate fidelity than unsuccessful females, and (3) examine the distance between nest sites and active leks in Strawberry Valley, Utah. We observed 30 radio-marked females that attempted a nest in consecutive nesting seasons between 1998 and 2010. The mean distance between initial year's ...

Wildlife water development can be an important habitat management strategy in western North America for many species, including both pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). In many areas, water developments are fenced (often with small-perimeter fencing) to exclude domestic livestock and feral horses. Small-perimeter exclosures could limit wild ungulate use of fenced water sources, as exclosures present a barrier pronghorn and mule deer must negotiate to gain access to fenced drinking water. To evaluate the hypothesis that exclosures limit wild ungulate access to water sources, we compared use (photo counts) of fenced versus unfenced water sources for both pronghorn and mule deer between June and October 2002–2008 in western Utah. We used model selection to identify an adequate distribution and best approximating model. We selected a zero-inflated negative binomial distribution for both pronghorn and mule deer photo counts. Both pronghorn and mule deer photo counts ...

Timing (mean birth date) and synchrony (variance around that date) of births can influence survival of young and population growth in ungulates. We quantified timing and synchrony of births in 2 populations of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) that were acquired from different source herds and reintroduced to adjacent areas. From 2001 to 2007 we recorded 121 birth dates to test whether timing and synchrony of parturition were similar between populations. Furthermore, we calculated population-wide survival of young to their 1st winter. Females on Mount Timpanogos gave birth later than females inhabiting Rock Canyon from 2001 to 2002 and in 2004; those females gave birth earlier in 2007 than females inhabiting Rock Canyon. Timing of births was similar in 2003 and from 2005 to 2006. The relationship between differences in mean birth dates between populations and time since reintroduction was marginally nonsignificant (P 5 0.075), whereas differences in synchrony of births were negatively related to time since reintroduction (P 5 0.005). Survivorship of young was higher for females in Rock Canyon that gave birth on average 30 days earlier from 2001 to 2002 and during 2004 than for females on Mount Timpanogos during those years. Our findings provide evidence that within 5 years after reintroduction bighorn sheep adjusted timing and synchrony of parturition to environmental conditions of their release site. A slow adjustment of these life-history characteristics by females on Mount Timpanogos possibly contributed to lower survival of young to their 1st winter during 2001–2002 and 2004, which could have impeded establishment of those mammals in that study area.

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) communities are ecologically critical; however, these areas currently face severe threats from alteration and reduction. Pygmy rabbits Brachylagus idahoensis are sagebrush specialists that occupy the intermountain region of the USA. Little is known concerning how fragmentation of sagebrush and an increase in habitat edge may impact pygmy rabbits. From 2004 to 2009 in Utah, USA, we tested hypotheses concerning the influences of habitat edge on pygmy rabbits. We quantified the number of active pygmy rabbit burrows in relation to distance from habitat edge. At differing distances from habitat edge, we also deployed remote cameras at burrows and counted fecal pellets to document potential increases in the number of terrestrial predators and competitors. We classified activity of 528 burrows (284 active and 244 inactive). The proportion of active burrows was lower within 100 m of habitat edge (r2=0.502, P=0.02) compared with burrows located in control areas (>100 m from habitat edge). Photographs of pygmy rabbits decreased at burrows closer to habitat edge (P

Males and females of most dimorphic ruminants segregate outside the mating season, which may necessitate that conservation efforts focus on differential resources used by the sexes. Dimorphic bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis are one of the rarest ungulates in North America with some populations listed as endangered. Water sources are important for the persistence of populations of bighorns, especially in a changing climate. Understanding whether the sexes use different water sources could influence the conservation of this species and the habitats they occupy; however, little research exists regarding this important topic. We tested hypotheses relating to use of water sources by reintroduced male and female bighorns in Utah, USA. We investigated whether use of this resource differed across seasons by sex, and if sexes used water more during drought compared with non-drought conditions. Bighorns used small, adjacent core areas during segregation, and males and females used different sources of water during that time. Males visited water sources used by females more during aggregation. Males and females used water sources more in summer, and males visited water sources more during rut than did females. Males and females did not use water sources more during drought compared with non-drought conditions; however, sexes visited water sources more during the season following drought than following non-drought conditions, indicating a time-lag in use of this resource. Our results highlight the importance of water sources used by sexes of bighorns, and indicate that the existing criterion for distance of bighorn reintroductions from water may be inadequate for successful establishment of populations. We recommend conservationists assess availability of water sources near habitat used by male and female ungulates before conserving and manipulating habitat, siting artificial sources of water and reintroducing animals.

Little is known regarding the potential adjustment of maternal care towards late-born young by reintroduced female ungulates, which may be adapted to environments quite different than those at their release site. We compared nursing behaviors of young to investigate whether females would adjust maternal care toward late-born young between two populations of reintroduced bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in Utah, USA. Neonates on Mount Timpanogos were born on average 28 days later in 2002 and 13 days later in 2003 than neonates in Rock Canyon. Suckling and weaning behaviors, however, were similar in 2002 and 2003 between those populations, except for the number of unsuccessful suckles, which was greater for young in Rock Canyon than for young on Mount Timpanogos during the middle of lactation in 2002. Our results provide preliminary evidence that females did not adjust maternal care to compensate for late-born young within the first 3 years following reintroduction, which possibly influenced survivorship of young.

Water sources are an important habitat component for populations of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), and the technique of sampling at water sources has been used extensively to study behaviors and estimate parameters of bighorn populations, Little is known, however, concerning the time of day at which groups of bighorns visit water. Understanding when bighorns visit water sources will allow wildlife investigators to conduct sampling when bighorns are most likely to be present at this resource. We quantified use of 7 water sources by reintroduced bighorn sheep during summer 2005 and 2006 on Antelope Island State Park, Utah. Our purpose was to determine if female, male, or mixed-sex groups visited water at a particular time and if visits to this resource by all bighorns differed in time during drought conditions compared with nondrought conditions. The mean time that all bighorns visited water was 14:22 (s = 3:08 hours). No time differences existed among female, male, or mixed-sex groups or betwee...

Water sources are important for the conservation and management of bighorn sheepOvis canadensis (Shaw, 1804). Little is known, however, regarding the use of water by reintroduced Rocky Mountain bighornsO. c. canadensis (Shaw, 1804). Our purpose was to quantify use of water sources by bighorns to test hypotheses related to the value of these sites on Antelope Island, Utah, USA, from July 2005 to December 2006. We predicted that bighorns would increase the number and duration of visits to water during summer. Moreover, we predicted that animals would visit and spend more time at water during drought. Our results indicate that bighorns visited and spent more time around water in summer. These animals, however, did not visit and spend more time at water during drought. Nevertheless, use of water sources increased during times of similar precipitation that followed drought, indicating a potential time-lag in water use by bighorns. Our results underscore the importance of water for reintroduced bighorns in the deserts of western USA, and indicate that animals congregate in riparian areas near water and thereby may facilitate the spreading of diseases and parasites.

Chukars (Alectoris chukar) have been introduced throughout the world. Despite this widespread distribution, limited information regarding seasonal survival, probable causes of mortality, and other basic life history characteristics is available to manage this harvested species. We estimated the probable cause of mortality for chukars with radiotransmitters by examining evidence at kill sites. We used model selection to evaluate influences of seasonal effects (fall raptor migration, peak migration, and reproductive period), demographic effects (age and sex), radio weight, and year on survival of chukars in western Utah, USA, by using a known-fate model in Program MARK and 2 years of telemetry data. We captured and randomly fitted 125 individual chukars with 2 different-sized radiotransmitters (97 F, 20 M, 8 sex undetermined). Model selection results showed our top 3 models accounted for 99% of Akaike's Information Criterion weight, and each one had seasonal and year effects. Two-week survival estimates were lower during peak raptor migration in both years and significantly (P 0.91). Annual survival was lower in 2005 (S = 0.03, 95% CI = 0.01–0.09) compared with 2006 (S = 0.19, 95% CI = 0.12–0.31). We documented 95 deaths and classified 56% unknown, 33% avian predation, 8% hunter harvest, and 3% mammalian predation. Our research suggests that predation on chukars is substantial during the peak fall raptor migratory period and that the hunting take under current regulations is relatively small and likely compensatory.

During 2 years of radiotelemetry research on chukars (Alectoris chukar) in western Utah, USA, we found 28% of retrieved radios (n = 78) in rubbish nests of woodrats (Neotoma spp.). Such movement and disturbance of carcasses and radios by woodrats and other species has implications for radiotelemetry studies. We evaluated spatio-temporal movement of 51 radiocollars attached to chukar carcasses in western Utah. Most (80%) carcasses were scavenged within one week and by the end of 3 weeks 25 (50%) had been retrieved from woodrat middens. Scavenging activity can both obscure important clues needed to identify causes of mortality and bias telemetry studies by delaying onset of mortality signals.

Mating by young males or low male-to-female ratios can decrease pregnancy rates and postpone birthdates in ungulates, thereby hindering population growth. Young (2.5‐3.5 yr old) male bighorn (Ovis canadensis) behave differently than older males, and age, horn size, mating behavior, and social rank help determine reproductive success. We estimated birthdates in two populations of bighorn sheep in Utah, USA, to determine if mating by young males or low male-to-female ratios resulted in fewer young born per female, a shift in mean timing of births, or asynchronous births. When reintroduced, the Rock Canyon population consisted of four males (two each of 2.5 yr old and 1.5 yr old) and a 1 to 7.5 ratio of males (>2 yr old) to adult females (‡3.5 yr old); the Mount Nebo population consisted of four males £1.5 yr old and a 0 to 12 ratio of males to adult females. For both populations, the number of young born per female did not differ between the first parturition period after reintroduction (where females were impregnated by males from their source populations) and the second period of parturition (where females were impregnated by young, reintroduced males). Mean birthdates and synchrony (SD) of births did not differ for Rock

Translocations of greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) have been attempted in 7 states and one Canadian province with very little success. To recover a small remnant population and test the efficacy of sage-grouse translocations, we captured and transported 137 adult female sage-grouse from 2 source populations to a release site in Strawberry Valley, Utah, USA, during March–April 2003–2005. The resident population of sage-grouse in Strawberry Valley was approximately 150 breeding birds prior to the release. We radiomarked each female and documented survival, movements, reproductive effort, flocking with resident grouse, and lek attendance. We used Program MARK to calculate annual survival of translocated females in the first year after release, which averaged 0.60 (95% CI = 0.515–0.681). Movements of translocated females were within current and historic sage-grouse habitat in Strawberry Valley, and we detected no grouse outside of the study area. Nesting propensity for first (newly tra...

We evaluated chukar (Alectoris chukar) watering patterns as well as habitat variables influencing water site selection in western Utah. Motion-sensing cameras and chukar dropping counts were primary techniques to evaluate watering patterns. We took vegetative and other habitat measurements at each water source (n = 43) to discriminate use from nonuse sites using logistic regression. Chukars watered during daylight hours with a modal hour from 1200 hours to 1300 hours daylight savings time. Annual patterns suggest limited use of water sources from November to May with first observed visits occurring in June and last observed visits in October. Shrub canopy cover was the only variable to discriminate between site types (P 0.05). Chukars seem to have a loose shrub canopy threshold near 11% that is likely due...

This is the first treatment of the mammals of the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument (GSENM). GSENM was established in 1996 as a 1.7-million-acre (680,000-ha) federal land reserve under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). To successfully manage this new monument, the BLM is presently developing a management action plan. To provide information for the proper management of mammal species of the area, we have reviewed background literature for each mammal potentially found within the Monument boundaries. We propose that a core area, surrounded by a buffer matrix, be used in GSENM and surrounding public lands to preserve ecological processes in their natural state. One hundred thirteen mammalian species are categorized as follows: 82 contemporary species, 21 species questionably present, 4 introduced species reportedly in the Monument, and 6 historical species. Altogether, potentially 107 mammalian species exist there currently. Of 82 contemporary species, 11 are listed ...

Context.Timing (mean birthdate) and synchrony (variance around that date) of births can influence survival of young and growth in ungulate populations. Some restored populations of ungulates may not adjust these life-history characteristics to environments of release sites until several years after release, which may influence success of reintroductions. Aims. We quantified timing and synchrony of births from 2005 to 2007 in four populations of reintroduced bighorn sheep(Oviscanadensis)occupyingtwoecoregions(CentralBasinandRangeandWasatchandUintaMountains)inUtah, USA,toinvestigatewhetherbighornswouldadjusttheselife-historycharacteristicstoenvironmentalconditionsofthetwo ecoregions. We also compared timing and synchrony of births for bighorns in their source herd (Antelope Island) with bighorns in an ecologically similar release site (Stansbury Mountains) during 2006 and 2007. Methods. We relocated female bighorns to record birthdates of young, and observed groups of collared bighorns to quantify use of elevation by those ungulates. We also calculated the initiation, rate and timing of peak green-up by ecoregion, using the normalised difference vegetation index. Key results.We quantified 274 birthdates, and although only separatedby 57km, bighorn populations occupying the Central Basin and Range Mountains gave birth an average of 29 days earlier than did those on the Wasatch and Uinta Mountains,which corresponded with the initiation of vegetation green-up.Additionally, bighorn sheep on the Stansbury Mountains (ecologically similar release site) gave birth at similar times as did bighorns on Antelope Island (source area). Conclusions.Populationsofbighornsheepthatwerereintroducedintoadjacentecoregionsadjustedtimingofbirthsto environments and green-up of vegetation in restoration areas. Timing and synchrony of births for reintroduced bighorn sheep in an ecologically similar release site were the same as those of their source area. Implications. Consideration should be given to the adjustment of timing and synchrony of births when reintroducing bighorns, especially when animals are released into different ecoregions. Also, biologists should select release sites that are ecologically similar to source areas, thereby reducing potential negative effects of animals adjusting timing and synchrony of births to environmental conditions of restoration areas. Additional keywords: birthing period, Ovis canadensis, parturition, restoration, translocation.

Translocations have been used for decades to restore or augment wildlife populations, yet more often than not, little to no data and/or arbitrary means are used for determining translocation success. The objectives of our study were to describe nesting habitat utilised by the greater sage grouse translocated into an extant population and to identify factors related to nest success, thereby demonstrating the adaptability of the birds to their new environment and producing one measure of long-term translocation success. We trapped female grouse individuals during the spring on and near leks of source populations, fitted them with radio-transmitters, and released them in the morning onto an active lek in an extant population in Strawberry Valley, Utah. We monitored translocated females for nesting activity and documented nesting attempts, nest success, clutch size and embryo viability. Data were recorded on habitat variables associated with nest sites and paired-random sites, including factors known to be important for resident females that nested successfully. We used logistic regression and an a priori information-theoretic approach for modelling nest v. paired-random sites and successful v. unsuccessful nest sites. Our analyses suggested that crown area of the nest shrub and percentage grass cover were the two variables that discriminated between nest and paired-random sites. Females that nested successfully selected sites with more total shrub canopy cover, intermediate size-shrub crown area, aspects other than NW and SE, and steeper slopes than for unsuccessful nests. After being translocated from distant sites with differing habitat characteristics, these birds were able to initiate a nest, nest successfully, and select micro-habitat features similar to those selected by resident sage grouse across the species range. Our results demonstrate the adaptability of the translocated female sage grouse individuals and produce one tangible measure of long-term translocation success.

Chukars (Alectoris chukar) have been widely introduced throughout the world. Their introductions and associated management for sport hunting have the potential to affect native ecosystems in a variety of ways. Our specific objectives were: (1) to document species using water developments designed to benefit chukar populations to determine whether, and at what prevalence, exotic species appear to use, and presumably benefit from, additional watering points; (2) to describe chukar diet with specific reference to cheatgrass and other exotic plant seeds; and (3) to determine whether chukars are a likely vector for dispersal of cheatgrass and/or other plant seeds via passage through the gut. In total, 27 different wildlife species were photographed across all 36 sampled water developments. Three exotic species were photographed to include chukars, rock dove (Columba livia), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), with the latter two species photographed at only two and one site respectively. Mean number of species photographed (5.69 ± 1.09) ranged from 1 to 13, but was estimated near 10 after accounting for sampling time. Cheatgrass seed was found in 76.3% of crops and constituted 45.2% of dry weight. Thirteen plants germinated from 503 chukar faecal droppings. We found no evidence of widespread use of water points designed for chukars by other exotic species or dispersal of cheatgrass seed via passage through the gut. Chukars appear (at least initially) benign and they are not likely to be major vectors in plant seed dispersal. Furthermore, chukars could foster localised plant diversity in that they consume large quantities of primarily exotic plant seed and do not show a propensity for dispersal of seeds through faecal droppings.

This study evaluated multiple aspects of spring/summer sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) habitat in Strawberry Valley, Utah by measuring vegetation associated with nest, brood and adult use sites. In addition, 3 types of random habitats were measured including available habitat within core use areas, random sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)/grass habitat outside core use areas, and random sagebrush/grass habitat sites that had been converted to an understory of smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyss) by past range management practices. Logistic regression was used to identify those habitat variables that discriminated between site types. Variables that discriminated adult habitat from brood rearing habitat included: 1) sagebrush height (P ≤ 0.01) and 2) forb diversity (P = 0.12) with sagebrush height being greater at adult sites and forb diversity greater at brood sites Variables that significantly discriminated occupied adult habitat from random habitat outside of core use areas included: 1) percent grass cover (P ≤ 0.01) and 2) area of sagebrush canopy (P = 0.03) with both variables having grater values in adult habitat. Variables that significantly discriminated occupied adult habitat from random habitat with a smooth brome understory included: 1) percent forb cover (P ≤ 0.01), 2) shrub canopy cover (P = 0.02), and 3) area of sagebrush canopy (P = 0.08) with all variables being greater in adult habitat. In addition, this study identified sagebrush age, sagebrush canopy area, and forb diversity as potentially important aspects of sage grouse habitat that have not been previously reported.

Surface scale patterns, cross- and longitudinal-sections, and sanded hairs from selected species and subspecies of the families Tayassuidae and Suidae were examined with scanning electron microscopy. Tayassu and Catagonus hairs have cortical layers of varying thickness, radial ribs, and spongy areas which have minor variations between genera and species. Dorsal scapular hairs of Sus scrofa domesticus, S. s. scrofa , and Phacochoerus appear similar in cross section, but different morphological characteristics are evident when the hairs are cut longitudinally or sanded. Surface scale patterns of the taxa studied in these two families did not differ significantly when observed with scanning electron microscopy.

The kit fox (Vulpes macrotis Merriam) inhabits desert and semiarid areas of western North America. Recent research and evaluations consider the kit fox distinct from the swift fox V. velox (Say) (Rohwer and Kilgore, 1973; Egoscue, 1979; McGrew, 1979; Honacki et al., 1982; Nowack and Paradiso, 1983). Earlier accounts (Hall and Kelson, 1959) recognized eight subspecies of V. macrotis. McGrew’s (1979) thorough review of research dealing with subspecific categories for the kit fox reduced the eight subspecies to five: V. m. macrotis Merriam, V. m. mutica Merriam, V. m. nevadensis Goldman, and V. m. zinseri Benson. The San Joaquin kit fox (V. m. mutica) is considered an endangered species by the U. S. Department of Interior and receives appropriate protection in California (Morrell, 1972; U. S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1976).

Reproductive tracts of 24 female coyotes hand-reared for behavioral research were examined by laparotomy following the 1977–78 breeding season. Litter counts revealed 51 whelps with 10 of the 24 females while examination by laparotomy indicated 83 uterine swellings in 18 of the same 24 females. The laparotomy proved to be an effective, relatively precise procedure and gave a 39% increase in data acquisition.

Thirty-nine mule deer fawns (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) were captured in south-central Washington in 1977. The fawns were 1-24 days old and weighed 2.9-9.7 kg. The average age at capture was 6.9 ? 5.2 days. Fawns were located daily May through August, and monthly through December. Average distance traveled by fawns from the previous day's location during an approximate 24-hour period for the Ist 3 months of life was highly variable and averaged 438 m. The mean home range was 257 ha for fawns approximately 60 days old or older. Total mortality was 14 out of 26 radio-instrumented fawns. Predation by coyotes (Canis latrans) accounted for 10 of the losses. Drowning caused 3 deaths, and circulatory collapse accounted for 1 death. Combined fawn mortality was 54%. High variability in average daily distance traveled by individual fawns indicates that age is not reliable as the sole factor for predicting fawn movements. Intensive coyote removal on the study area probably would not substantially reduce total mortality in the fawn population. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 44(2):381-388 This study addressed factors responsible for neonatal mortality of radio-instrumented mule deer in south-central Washington. The research was conducted on the United States Department of Energy Hanford Reservation. To the north and east, the reservation is bounded by the Columbia River. Hunting has not been permitted on the Benton County portion of the Hanford Reservation since the federal government took control of the land in 1943. However, coyote control programs continued through 1970. The Hanford Reservation has not been used for agriculture or ranching during the past 30 years, and unauthorized personnel are not permitted on the area. All known past and current studies of natural mortality of mule deer fawns have been or are being conducted in areas open to seasonal hunting of mule deer and unregulated predator control programs. An ideal area for studies of natural mortality should feature special characteristics such as a nonmigratory herd of mule deer; minimal disturbance or harassment by man; absence of hunting of deer and coyote; absence of coyote control programs; lack of competition for forage between deer and livestock; and no alternate large prey species, such as sheep, for coyote populations. The Hanford Reservation closely approximates these special characteristics. We acknowledge and thank the following: K. Gano, C. McShane, M. LaRiviere, B. Goins, and L. Leschner for assistance with fawn capture and tagging; J. J. England, Colorado State University Diagnostic Laboratory, for necropsy and analysis for fawn diseases; D. Beaty of Telonics Telemetry-Electronics Consultants; C. Sauer and T. Dyal for manuscript preparation; the Northwest College and University Association for Science, Richland, Washington, for personnel funding; Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories of Richland, Washington, for materials and funding; and W. H. Rickard of Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories for counsel, supervision, and support throughout the course of this study. 'Work performed by Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories under Department of Energy Contract EY-76-C-06-1830 on the Hanford National Environmental Research Park, Richland, Washington. J. Wildl. Manage. 44(2):1980 381 This content downloaded from 128.193.8.24 on Wed, 28 Aug 2013 19:01:47 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 382 MULE DEER FAWN MORTALITY AND MOVEMENTS* Steigers and Flinders

Highlight: Coyote diets were determined from scat and stomach analyses over a two-year period in an area centered in the Rolling Plains region of Texas. Fruit from 9 species of native plants were the most important food for coyotes, mainly as rainfall in May-and September. There is usually a dry making up 46% of the annual diet. Honey mesquite pods alone summer period with extremely high temperatures and contributed 15.6% of the annual diet. Rodents contributed evaporation, while the winters are relatively mild. The eleva24.5% of the coyote’s annual diet, while leporids made up just tion is approximately 550 m above sea level. Steep rocky hills 10.5%. The foodniche of coyotes varied seasonally as well as occur along the South Fork of the Wichita and Brazos Rivers annually. The coyote’s role as an agent of seed dispersal while flat to gently rolling topography occurs away from the appears minimal since digestion of some seeds by coyotes rivers. Honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. significantly reduces percent germination. Late evening and glandulosa), tobosagrass (Hilaria mutica), and buffalograss pre-dawn hours seem the normal feeding period for most (Buchloe dactyloides) are dominants on the deep hardland and coyotes, and moon phase did not affect the timing of this heavy clay range sites, while redberry juniper (Juniperus activity. In this study there was no evidence of coyote pinch0 tii), sideoats grama (Bou teloua curtipendula), and mesquite dominate in-the rough breaks. Pricklypear (Opuntia cow-calf operations on large ranches. Some ranchers also run stocker yearlings during the fall and winter. The average annual precipitation is 63 cm, which comes

During mid-January 1979, ingesta samples were collected from the stomachs of ten wild pygmy rabbits. The ingesta samples were analyzed for big sagebrush and monoterpenoid content. Big sagebrush comprised 97% of the material in the ingesta and was the only forage containing monoterpenoids. Monoterpenoid content of the ingesta was only 23% of expected levels. This major loss (77%) of monoterpenoids may occur during mastication. Loss of monoterpenoids from mastication by pygmy rabbits was measured in an airtight rabbit chamber. Twelve times more monoterpenoids were recovered during the rabbit feeding trials (big sagebrush and rabbit) than during the control tests (big sagebrush only). Recent dietary studies indicate that pygmy rabbits (Brachlagus idahoensis) have a near obligate relationship with sagebrush (Artemisia sp.) (Green and Flinders 1980). Green and Flinders (1980) and Wilde (1978) found 99% of the winter diet of pygmy rabbits was sagebrush. Only the sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) and some wintering populations of mule deer (Odocoileous hemionus) and antelope (Antilocapra americana) depend on big sagebrush to the degree pygmy rabbits do (Kufeld et al. 1973; Sundstrom et al. 1973; Braun et al. 1977). Sagebrush contains monoterpenoids (volatile oils) that exhibit antimicrobial properties (Nagy and Regelin 1977). These properties are postulated to reduce microbial digestion in ruminants (Longhurst et al. 1968; Radwan 1974). Values ranging from 15 to 50% sagebrush in the diets of deer are said to cause digestive disturbances, and in some cases sufficient to cause death in deer (Nagy et al. 1964; Nagy and Tengerdy 1968; Wallmo et al. 1977; Carpenter et al. 1979). Welch and McArthur(198 1) and Welch and Pederson (1981) questioned whether monoterpenoids cause digestive disturbances in mule deer. Welch and Pederson (1981) hypothesized that through volatilization during mastication and ingestion, mule deer could greatly reduce the interaction of monoterpenoids with rumen microorganisms. Cluff et al. (1982) found monoterpenoid levels in mule deer rumens were considerably lower than in forage consumed by the deer. Severson et al. (1968) reported that antelope may consume large amounts of big sagebrush (up to 90% of the diet) without apparent detrimental effects. The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that the monoterpenoid level in the stomach ingesta of pygmy rabbits is significantly less than expected from the forage ingested. Materials and Methods Pygmy rabbits inhabited a big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) community located on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station near Dubois, Idaho (Green and Flinders 1980). From this population, 10 pygmy rabbits were killed to determine monoterpenoid content of big sagebrush in the stomach ingesta. Rabbits were killed on January 12 and 13, 1979, and the Authors are graduate research assistant, Range Science Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602; research plant physiologist, intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah 84601; and chairman, Botany and Range Science Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602. Manuscript received April 7, 1980. stomachs immediately removed and frozen with dry ice. A composite, vegetative sample (current year's growth) of big sagebrush was collected at the same time and location where the rabbits were killed. Vegetative samples were also frozen with dry ice. At the laboratory, stomach ingesta and sagebrush were immediately placed in a freezer (-35 C) for storage. Stomach ingesta were removed from the stomach lining and weighed, and reingested food pellets were separated from other stomach contents. Reingested pellets or soft feces are products of the cecum; the rabbit takes them directly from the anus and swallows them whole (Moir 1968). Fourteen grams of stomach ingesta were placed in a 125 ml erlenmeyer flask with 25 ml of absolute ether and placed on a shaker for 20 hours. The ether extract was decanted from the stomach material into a 50 ml volumetric flask with one ml of carvone standard (31.25 g/250 ml) and enough ether to bring to volume. Reingested pellets from the stomach were treated in the same manner except only 3 to 5 g of pellets were placed in ether with .2 ml of carvone standard, and ether extract was concentrated by reduced pressure to 10 ml. The sagebrush samples were ground in liquid nitrogen and monoterpenoids extracted by Soxhlet extraction using absolute ether (Welch and McArthur 1981). All ether extracts were analyzed for monoterpenoids by gas chromatographic techniques outlined by Welch and McArthur (1981). Dry weights of all material (stomach and vegetative) were obtained to express monoterpenoid content on a dry weight basis. Microscopic techniques as described by Flinders and Hansen (1972) were used to determine the relative percent frequency of sagebrush in the stomach ingesta of the 10 pygmy rabbits. These values were used to calculate the concentration of monoterpenoids, on a dry matter basis, in stomach ingesta. One male pygmy rabbit, from a captive colony of rabbits at Brigham Young University, was used to measure loss of monoterpenoids through the ingestion processes. An airtight rabbit chamber, through which a constant flow of compressed air (1,500 ml/minute) could pass, was designed to hold a rabbit and sagebrush. Air from the rabbit chamber passed through glass tubing and bubbled through two successive 500 ml flasks containing 300 ml of absolute ether to trap the monoterpenoids. The flasks were placed in an ice bath to minimize ether evaporation. Three tests were conducted under standard conditions. These conditions were: (1) on the first day at 6:30 a.m. a big sagebrush plant was selected, tagged, and current year growth sampled; (2) the sagebrush sample was immediately transported to the laboratory, where 50 g of sample was placed in the rabbit chamber with the rabbit; (3) the air was turned on at 7 a.m. and off at 1 p.m.; (4) ether from the flasks was concentrated to about 6 ml; .2 ml of a carvone standard was added and then brought to a 10 ml volume; (5) monoterpenoids were measured by gas chromatograph; (6) the next day, the same big sagebrush plant was again sampled at 6:30 a.m. and steps 3 through 5 repeated, except the rabbit was removed from the rabbit chamber (control). These steps made up the first test. The next test began with the selection of a new big sagebrush plant. Temperature in the rabbit JOURNAL OF RANGE MANAGEMENT 35(1), January 1982 107 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.19 on Tue, 14 Jun 2016 06:28:32 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms chamber remained constant (240 C) throughout testing. Throughout both tests, the rabbit chamber contained a dish of guinea pig pellets and a water bottle. Pygmy rabbits are negatively sensitive to extended periods without food (personal observation). The rabbit was not fasted except for test 3, when all food was removed 12 hours prior to testing. To create minimal disturbance the rabbit stayed in the chamber for the duration of pretesting and testing, being removed only when sagebrush alone was tested. The amount of trapped monoterpenoids from the three tests was expressed in milligrams. Paired comparisons were used to determine significant differences (Huntsberger 1967).

Highlight: Spring population densities of black-tailed jackrabbits, white-tailed jackrabbits, and desert cottontail rabbits were estimated on pastures under four different grazing treatments by cattle on the shortgrass prairie of northeastern Colorado. Black-tailed jackrabbits were most abundant on pastures with light-summer and moderate-summer grazing treatments. White-tailed jackrabbits showed no strict preference for any grazing treatments but preferred all upland pastures. Desert cottontail rabbits were most abundant in pastures under moderate-summer and moderate-winter grazing treatment. The ratio of abundance between the three species of leporids is, in part, a function of the different levels of grazing intensity. A ny future long-term changes in vegetational management in the area could be expected to affect populational ratios.

Highlight: Fecal pellets were taken from black-tailed jacktabbits and desert cottontail rabbits for studies of rates of natural degradation. Microscopic analyses of fecal samples showed a significant difference in the proportion of grasses, forbs, and woody plants ingested by the two leporid species sampled. Jackrabbits had ingested greater proportions of grasses and woody plants while cottontails had ingested greater proportions of forb material. Degradation of fecal pellets was observed at regular intervals from 1972 to 1974. Time required for complete disappearance of pellets was estimated at 4.4 years for jackrabbits and 9.5 years for cottontails. Relative humidity and precipitation were strongly correlated (r = -0.98 and -0.95 for jackrabbits and cottontails, respectively) with disappearance of pellets.

Pygmy rabbits were used in feeding trials to rate preference of 15 populations of 2 subspecies of big sagebrush (A rtemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana, A rtemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata). Monoterpenoid content of sagebrush was determined for each population in the feeding trials and related to food preference. The rabbits showed no significant preference for one A rtemisia subspecies over the other; instead, selection was made at the population level. There was no significant correlation between monoterpenoid content and dietary preference of pygmy rabbits. It has been reported by a number of researchers that wintering mule deer prefer some populations and subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) over others (Plummer et al. 1968, Hanks et al. 1971, Scholl et al. 1977, McArthur et al. 1979, Welch and McArthur 1979, Welch et al. 198 1). Hanks et al. (1971) and Sheehy (1975) reported that wintering sheep expressed similar differential preferences for populations and subspecies of big sagebrush. Determining wintering mule deer or sheep preferences for populations or subspecies of big sagebrush is an arduous and timeconsuming process. Paper chromatographic and ultraviolet light tests lack the sensitivity to differentiate preference among populations in a given subspecies (Hanks et al. 1971, and Stevens and McArthur 1974). Pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis), described by Green and Flinders (1980) as having an "obligatelike" relationship with big sagebrush, may be useful as a laboratory test animal in evaluating the preferences of wintering sheep and mule deer for certain sagebrush populations. Even though big sagebrush comprises 97 to 99% of the winter diet of pygmy rabbits, nothing is known about the preference of these animals for certain populations or subspecies of big sagebrush (Wilde 1978, Green and Flinders 1980, White et al. 1982). This study is the first part of a two-part project aimed at determining the usefulness of pygmy rabbits in evaluating animal preference for certain big sagebrush populations. The purpose of this study was to determine if pygmy rabbits prefer some populations of big sagebrush over others. A secondary purpose was to relate the monoterpenoid content of big sagebrush populations to possible preference differences (Barbar et al. 1969, Sheehy 1975, Scholl et al. 1977, Nagy and Regelin 1977). Methods and Materials A laboratory colony of 15 pygmy rabbits was established at Brigham Young University for use in this study. Rabbits were trapped at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station near Dubois, Idaho. Upon arrival at the laboratory, rabbits were dusted for fleas and placed in individual pens. Every other day, rabbits received fresh sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana and ssp. tridentata) from various locations around Provo, Utah. Guinea pig food pellets containing 17.0% crude protein, 4.0% crude fat, 12.0% crude fiber, and mineral supplement were continuously available Authors are graduate research assistant, Range Science Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602; chairman, Botany and Range Science Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah; research plant physiologist, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah 84601. Manuscript received September 25, 1980. to the rabbits. Ten rabbits were selected to determine preference for various subspecies and populations of big sagebrush. Fifteen populations of big sagebrush, which included eight populations of A.t. ssp. tridentata and 7 populations of A.t. ssp. vaseyana, were selected to test for pygmy rabbit dietary preference. Subspecies were identified by morphological and chemical criteria (Stevens and McArthur 1974, McArthur et al. 1979). Selection of the populations was based on sagebrush location and on the travel time needed to collect 2 distinct populations of each of the 2

HARRIS, S. 1978. Age determination in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes)-An evaluation of technique efficiency as applied to a sample of suburban foxes. J. Zool. Lond. 184:91-117. JOHNSON, D. H., A. B. SARGEANT, AND S. H. ALLEN. 1975. Fitting Richards' curve to data of diverse origins. Growth 39:315-330. LAYNE, J. N., AND W. H. MCKEON. 1956. Notes on the development of the red fox fetus. N.Y. Fish and Game J. 3:120-128. LINHART, S. B. 1968. Dentition and pelage in the juvenile red fox (Vulpes vulpes). J. Mammal. 49:526-528. MCINTOSH, D. L. 1963. Reproduction and growth of the fox in the Canberra District. CSIRO Wildl. Res. 8: 132-141. SARGEANT, A. B. 1978. Red fox prey demands and implications to prairie duck production. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:520-527. S, W. K. PFEIFER, AND S. H. ALLEN. 1975. A spring aerial census of red foxes in North Dakot . J. Wildl. Manage. 39:30-39. SHELDON, W. 1950. Denning habits and home range of red foxes in New York state. J. Wildl. Manage. 14:33-42. STORM, G. L., AND E. D. ABLES. 1966. Notes on n wb rn and full-term wild red foxes. J. Mammal. 47:116-118.

Botanical composition of white-tailed deer fecal pellets from untreated and brush-controlled areas of the Texas Rolling Plains was studied by microscopic analysis. Deer showed a marked preference for 11 of 54 plant species selected as food from a total of 250 identified on the study area. The bulk of the diet was comprised of mistletoe on non-brush control areas and of pricklypear on brush-controlled areas. Similarity indices relating habitat across diets as well as diets across a habitat indicated that several habitats had preferred foods removed. These habitats also had low populations of deer. Brush control involving limited removal of noxious species affected dietary selection of deer but did not appear to affect overall deer usage of the habitats studied. Ever-increasing costs and low returns to the ranching industry in Texas has made the noxious brush problem an item of major concern. With more than 50% of Texas rangeland covered with brush too dense for optimal livestock production and an additional 23% moderately infested (Smith and Rechenthin 1964), brush control has become a common practice. This control has been used mainly for increasing grass and livestock production, with little effort expended to document the effects of brush control on wildlife populations. The value of wildlife resources becomes increasingly important to land managers when leased trespass rights for hunting compare favorably with economic returns from livestock production (Ramsey 1965). Since habitat management is of paramount importance for sustained optimal production of game animals, land managers should carefully scrutinize brush control practices that will affect wildlife populations. The objectives ot this researcn were to determine the importance of brush species in the diet of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), to ascertain deer diets in various brush control habitats of north-central Texas, and to compare the similarity of deer diets to available forage in deer habitats.

Vegetal habitat characteristics and annual dietary selection were examined for the pygmy rabbit in southeastern Idaho. Areas selected for habitation by pygmy rabbits had a significantly greater woody cover and height than other areas. Total grass-forb biomass was similar in rabbit and nonrabbit sites. Grass biomass was least and forb biomass greatest where pygmy rabbits were most abundant. Sagebrush was eaten throughout the year, although in lesser amounts in summer (51%) than in winter (99%0). Grasses and forbs were eaten through the summer (39 and 10%, respectively) and decreased in the diet through fall to winter. Sagebrush is critical to the pygmy rabbit for both food and cover, although in this study, cover and height of woody vegetation appeared to be the critical features of the habitat selected for. This fact should be considered before brush removal treatments are applied within pygmy rabbit range. Wildlife habitat research has been termed the "cornerstone in management" (Reynolds 1974) but is often poorly accomplished or entirely neglected. Manipulation of habitat is common, but should be undertaken with an understanding of resident wildlife species' requirements for food and space. Throughout the western United States, there is an historical and present day practice of removing sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) by spraying, mechanical treatment, and burning to increase forage production. Only Green was at the time of the study, research associate, Botany and Range Science Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602. Current address is: U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, Idaho 83423. Flinders is associate professor, director Wildlife and Range Resources Graduate Program, 407 WIDB, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602. The efforts of Jeff Johansen and Forrest Luke, Laboratory Assistants, Brigham Young University, for reading and preparing dietary slides is appreciated. The work was supported by USDA Western Kegion Federal Cooperative Agreement No. 12-14-5001-264. Manuscript received December 22, 1978. recently has the impact of this activity on wildlife been considered and then only for a few species (Powell 1969; Braun et al. 1977; Renwald 1977). Additional information is required before habitat can be altered for range improvement with a knowledge of possible impacts on wildlife populations.