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Food producers and retailers throw away large amounts of perfectly edible produce that fails to meet appearance standards, contributing to the environmental issue of food waste. The authors examine why consumers discard aesthetically unattractive produce, and they test a low-cost, easy-to-implement solution: emphasizing the produce’s aesthetic flaw through “ugly” labeling (e.g., labeling cucumbers with cosmetic defects “Ugly Cucumbers” on store displays or advertising). Seven experiments, including two conducted in the field, demonstrate that “ugly” labeling corrects for consumers’ biased expectations regarding key attributes of unattractive produce—particularly tastiness—and thus increases purchase likelihood. “Ugly” labeling is most effective when associated with moderate (rather than steep) price discounts. Against managers’ intuition, it is also more effective than alternative labeling that does not exclusively point out the aesthetic flaw, such as “imperfect” labeling. This research provides clear managerial recommendations on the labeling and the pricing of unattractive produce while addressing the issue of food waste.

Upholding cooperative norms via punishment is of central importance in organizations. But what effect does punishing have on the reputation of the punisher? Although previous research shows third parties can garner reputational benefits for punishing transgressors who violate social norms, we proposed that such reputational benefits can vary based on the perceived motive for the punishment. In Studies 1 and 2, we found that individuals who endorsed a consequentialist (versus deontological) motive for punishing were seen as more trustworthy. In Study 3, the results showed that when pitted against one another, a person who endorsed a consequentialist (versus deontological) motive for punishing was chosen more often as a partner in a Trust Game. In Study 4, we found that a manager who expressed a consequentialist reason for punishing an employee was seen as having less psychopathic tendencies, and this related to the manager being perceived as more trustworthy and a superior cooperation partner. Using a recall methodology, Study 5 results showed that employees who perceived their managers as having more consequentialist (versus deontological) motives for punishing also perceived their managers as being less psychopathic and more trustworthy. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The current research advances understanding of how consumers respond to embarrassing service encounters. Across a combination of field and online studies, the authors provide evidence that (1) consumers prefer self-service to human services when purchasing embarrassing products or services; (2) when self-service is not available, consumers respond more positively to a mechanistic service provider than to a personable service provider; and (3) if consumers must engage in embarrassing social interactions, they dehumanize service providers, perceiving them as more mechanistic and less capable of emotional reactions than when engaging in nonembarrassing service interactions. The authors also examine consumers’ familiarity with the service provider as a boundary condition for the effect. Collectively, the results provide converging evidence for the proposed framework and have substantive implications for service management.

Supplemental Material, sj-docx-1-jmx-10.1177_0022242920988656 for From Waste to Taste: How “Ugly” Labels Can Increase Purchase of Unattractive Produce by Siddhanth (Sid) Mookerjee, Yann Cornil and JoAndrea Hoegg in Journal of Marketing

This chapter reviews prior research and reports original data that speak to the potential influence of brand, category, and attribute labels on sensory perception. A focus on experiential consumer behavior addresses activities that are common within the universe of consumption but rarely investigated from a cognitive or linguistic perspective. The few studies conducted within the consumer context have a similar cross-cultural flavor but a substantive focus outside of color perception. The work of B. H. Schmitt and S. Zhang demonstrates how linguistic differences can influence product perceptions and choice, consistent with the Whorfian perspective. Although centered on cross-cultural effects, it is also consistent with a larger body of within-culture consumer research that has examined the way in which category or brand labels can influence categorization and evaluation. Research has provided robust evidence that well-known brand names can influence and even overwhelm taste perception in preference tasks.

The current research tests whether and how being in the presence of attractive individuals alters consumers’ evaluations of their expected dining experience and the taste of the products consumed. Our results uncover a novel phenomenon in the domains of physical attractiveness and taste perception: attractiveness does indeed impact taste perception, but its influence varies as a function of the valence of the food consumed. When the server is attractive, good food tastes better but bad food tastes worse. Six studies demonstrate this effect and, importantly, show that it occurs for male, but not female consumers and only if the male consumers are low in need for cognition. The implications of this work and potential avenues for additional research are discussed.

This research investigates the impact of a sales team’s entitativity—the extent to which a group of individuals is perceived as a unified single entity—on customer satisfaction. Four studies demonstrate that a sales team entitativity cue, either based on appearance (e.g., wearing the same outfit) or based on behavior (e.g., explicit coordination in service), leads to heightened perceptions of service quality, which subsequently enhances customer satisfaction. Further, these two entitativity cues are shown to have interactive effects. Specifically, when both cues indicate high entitativity, customer satisfaction with the sales team exceeds the average evaluation of individual team members. However, if at least one cue suggests low entitativity (e.g., different outfits or no explicit coordination), the positive influence of the entitativity cue is undermined and customer satisfaction with the team’s service is mitigated. Product category is identified as an important moderator of the main effect.

Supplemental Material, JSR_Revised_Web_Appendix_Aug_26 for Employee Reactions to Preservice Tips and Compliments by Raymond Lavoie, Kelley Main, JoAndrea Hoegg and Wenxia Guo in Journal of Service Research

Supplemental Material, JSR_Executive_Summary_July_30 for Employee Reactions to Preservice Tips and Compliments by Raymond Lavoie, Kelley Main, JoAndrea Hoegg and Wenxia Guo in Journal of Service Research

Weather is an ever-present force in consumers’ daily lives, yet marketing lacks a comprehensive understanding of how and when it affects consumers and businesses. The current research investigates the effect of weather, a ubiquitous environmental cue, on consumers’ valuation of products. A large-scale field study and four experiments demonstrate that weather affects product valuation but only under particular conditions. In line with a process account drawing on mental simulation of product use, product valuation increases only if (1) the product is associated (vs. not associated) with a given weather state, as the match of product and weather facilitates mental simulation, and (2) the product is perceived as attractive (vs. unattractive), as mental simulation highlights both positive and negative product characteristics. We test three weather states—sunshine, snowfall, and rain—and find that our effects emerge for sunshine and snowfall but not for rain, as the latter does not enhance mental simulation. The findings advance literature on the effects of environmental cues and mental simulation and guide firms on how to increase consumers’ valuation of products by weather-related measures.

The present research addresses the question of how the color red affects married women's evaluations of male attractiveness. Three studies demonstrate a red-derogation effect for married women's judgments such that men are perceived to be less attractive and less sexually desirable when their profiles are displayed on a red versus a white background. We show that married (vs. single) women perceive the color red as a threat cue which, in turn, evokes avoidance tendencies. Our studies indicated that married (vs. single) women became more risk averse (Study 2) and were more likely to recall words related to relationship commitment and threat after exposure to an attractive male presented on a red (vs. white) background (Study 3). Further, we show that the red-derogation effect is moderated by the level of cognitive resources. When married women were cognitively depleted, the effect of color was mitigated. Overall the findings demonstrate that a subtle peripheral cue (e.g., red color) is sufficient to identify an attractive other as a threat, which activates a defensive strategy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Product aesthetics can enhance consumer welfare in numerous ways. Aside from simply making products more pleasurable, product aesthetics can also influence the inferences that consumers make about functional attributes. In some instances, an attractive design can accurately provide information regarding utility. In other instances, however, an attractive design can be a misleading signal that prompts consumers to assume more utility than justified. Across five studies, the present research examines whether aesthetics can exert an unwarranted influence on the estimation of missing attribute information in favor of an aesthetically superior product. We show that aesthetics can bias consumers’ inferences about functionality, sometimes overriding other more diagnostic information. Boundaries to this effect are also identified that may serve to correct the bias and preserve consumer welfare.

Preservice tips are becoming increasingly common in the marketplace (e.g., online food delivery, quick-service restaurants). While prior research has investigated how the practice of preservice tipping is perceived by customers, how preservice tipping impacts the perceptions and behaviors of employees remains unexplored. Does tipping early actually elicit better service? Through a series of four studies, our research compares the effectiveness of tips—a financial incentive, with compliments—a nonfinancial incentive. The results indicate that early tips and compliments are both effective in obtaining better service, but the relative effectiveness of a tip versus a compliment depends on the service context. In closed service contexts—which involve a continuous, relatively short interaction—tips are superior. For example, when getting a drink at a bar, buying a sandwich at a quick-service restaurant, or dropping off a car for valet parking, tipping early should lead to better customer service. In contrast, in open service contexts—which involve multiple interactions over a more extended period and provide an opportunity for a social connection—compliments become more effective. The results have practical implications for customers wishing to enhance their service experiences and for managers in motivating their employees.

Consumers are frequently bombarded with a myriad of marketing tactics. One tactic regularly employed by thrift-oriented brands is to highlight low prices, discounts, and sales promotions. When consumers encounter these low-price signals, they may adopt a price conscious mentality, that is, a singular focus on getting the cheapest deal. A price conscious mentality is likely beneficial for consumers, as it helps them save money. However, it is also possible that it has negative implications, particularly for how consumers perceive and interact with other human beings in the marketplace, such as customer service employees. The current research addresses this issue by investigating how consumers’ price conscious mentality impacts their perceptions of employees’ humanity. Results from four studies demonstrate that a price conscious mentality can lead consumers away from fully recognizing the human qualities of employees. The findings also suggest that this subtle form of dehumanization can result in harsher treatment of employees when they provide less than satisfactory service.

Research on the effect of design has tended to emphasize the aesthetic dimension of product form and its global, spontaneous, and even unconscious influence on overall product evaluation. But apart from the aesthetic aspect of design, product form has additional effects on consumer perception. When a product’s design suggests a particular level of functional performance, it can alter consumer judgment, even in the presence of ostensibly more objective written information. This finding does not only apply to a product’s overall impression, but also to how consumers evaluate individual product features. For a target feature, the presence of pictures altered the relative functional performance ratings in favor of the presented designs, but for non-target features the presenceof the picture had no effect. Hence, product form can communicate functional performance independently of global attractiveness. These insights have important implications for design creation and communication as well as for consumers. They highlight yet again the importance of close cooperation between product development, marketing and design.

Prior research on consumer response to preferential treatment has focused on treatment that has been earned through loyalty or effort, and most of this work has reported positive outcomes for recipients. Unearned preferential treatment (e.g., receiving a surprise discount, getting a free upgrade), in contrast, has received little attention. The current research demonstrates that, although receiving unearned preferential treatment does generate positive reactions, it is not always an entirely pleasurable experience. Results from four experiments show that when unearned preferential treatment is received in front of others, the positive feelings of appreciation for the treatment can be accompanied by feelings of social discomfort stemming from concerns about being judged negatively by other customers. These feelings of discomfort can reduce satisfaction with a shopping experience and affect purchasing behaviors. The negative impact of unearned preferential treatment on satisfaction is moderated by the characteristics and reactions of those observers.

This research reports the results of two field experiments designed to help determine what format of email advertising is most effective with customers at different lifecycle stages. The experiments examine customer response to picture-dominant versus text-dominant advertising. Although the relative effectiveness of picture- versus text-dominant advertising has received some attention in previous research, the issue of which type would be most effective at different points in the customer's relationship with the brand and for different metrics has not been explored. The two field experiments were executed by a major fashion retailer that sells clothing and accessories for special events. The first experiment was conducted with prospective customers and focused on advertising for the retailer's primary product, which typically occurs first in the purchase cycle. The second experiment was conducted with customers who had already purchased the primary product and focused on advertising for an accessory typically purchased later in the cycle. The investigation was conducted from a customer relationship management perspective, examining the financial impact of each type of advertisement at different stages in the customer's relationship with the brand. At the aggregate level we find only minor differences in the performance of the picture-dominant versus text-dominant advertisements. However, we find that the retailer can greatly improve revenue by customizing ad format based on observed customer traits.

Vanity sizing has become a popular retail trend and recent work shows it has a favorable impact on consumers. However, as the current research demonstrates, significant variations in sizing standards across retailers mean that consumers are as likely to encounter larger sizes as they are smaller, “vanity” sizes when shopping, highlighting the importance of understanding how consumers react to this potential threat in the marketplace. Across five studies we demonstrate that larger sizes result in negative evaluations of clothing and show that these effects are driven by consumers' appearance self-esteem. Importantly, we also find that instead of unilaterally lowering purchase intent as one might assume, larger sizes can actually increase spending, as consumers engage in compensatory consumption to help repair their damaged self-esteem. In so doing, this research reveals a dynamic and complex relationship between consumers and sizing labels, where shopping can serve to build, strengthen, threaten, and/or repair appearance self-esteem.

Spending on political advertising has grown dramatically in recent years, and political campaigns have increasingly adopted the language and techniques of marketing. As such political marketing efforts proliferate, the factors that drive electoral success warrant greater attention and investigation. The authors employ a combination of laboratory studies and analysis of actual election results to reveal influences of candidate appearance and spending strategies in campaigns. They analyze how personality trait inferences based on candidate appearance interact with political party brand image, advertising spending, and negative advertising. The results indicate that appearance-based inferences about candidates influence election outcomes, but their impact is driven partially by trait associations at the party brand level. This interaction between appearance and party alters the effects of advertising spending, particularly the effects of negative advertising. The findings have implications for the marketing of political candidates in terms of their party's brand image.

The present research investigates the manner in which product form communicates functional performance, and examines how the form of a product can alter judgments about feature function. In a series of experiments, product form is pitted against objective information about feature function to understand how conflicting visual and verbal cues are reconciled. The findings indicate that when a product's form suggests a particular level of functional performance, consumers naturally incorporate that information into judgments of feature performance, even when presented with conflicting feature information from an objective source. The role of consumer attention in the process is also explored. The results suggest that product developers may be able to improve perceived performance by focusing design efforts and marketing communications on specific features that visually communicate functionality.

As goods commoditize more quickly in terms of functionality, design is increasingly becoming a critical point of differentiation. The present research examines the interaction of aesthetic design and product evaluation, testing the conventional wisdom among practitioners that “what is beautiful is good.” Three studies examine how design influences feature processing when aesthetics and feature performance conflict. Study 1 reveals a bias in the direction of the unattractive product—a negative aesthetic effect—and provides initial evidence that this bias stems from thoughtful reconciliation of incongruous information and a consequent elaboration of the conflicting dimension. Studies 2 and 3 examine boundary conditions.

This study examines the effects of incidental similarity shared between a salesperson and a potential customer. We show that an incidental similarity, such as a shared birthday or birthplace, can result in a more favorable attitude and a higher intention to purchase. We argue and find that the need for connectedness underlies its persuasive effects in an interpersonal context. In addition, we show that the valence of the salesperson’s behavior and the possibility of an extended service relationship moderate the process. When the need for connectedness is mitigated, the positive effects of incidental similarity can be lost or even reversed.

Perceptual discrimination is fundamental to rational choice in many product categories yet rarely examined in consumer research. The present research investigates discrimination as it pertains to consumers’ ability to identify differences—or the lack thereof—among gustatory stimuli. Three experiments reveal systematic bias resulting from the presence of common visual and verbal product cues. Particularly noteworthy is the finding that the amount of bias induced by a subtle, nonevaluative cue can far exceed the bias induced by overt and well‐established evaluative cues. In addition, the effects these cues have on perceptual discrimination diverge from the effects they have on preference.

This session deals with innovative strategies in new product development. The first paper presents a program of research on strategies for utilizing anthropomorphization in creating acceptance of uncertain products, such as innovative high-technology products. The results show increased acceptance of anthropomorphized products, such as ones with sunny faces, that are high in uncertainty. The second paper examines product innovation in the solar energy industry and similar high-technology industries. Effectuation theory is developed as a viable contributor to improved product innovation. New products are often developed and introduced into the market in the absence of predetermined ends through a combination of means that firms happen to have on hand, but a more effective strategy could be achieved by selecting amongst alternative end states and allowing firms to become active participants in shaping the structure of the solar energy industry and in determining the value of the resources they command. The third paper presents research on integrating three contributors to new-product innovation in high technology industries such as residential solar panels: stage-gate appropriateness, visualization (a cousin of anthropomorphization), and self determination. When combined effectively, these three strategies can enhance new product development.

International audience; Unfair treatment can activate strong negative emotions among victims and third parties. Less is known about other innate and evolutionary-based reactions to unfairness, such as those that manifest themselves through our senses. In three experiments, we found that interpersonally unfair treatment at work, defined as treatment that violates an individual's sense of dignity and respect, triggered disgust emotions over and above anger which subsequently related to stronger taste and smell reactions to gustatory and olfactory stimuli. This effect was observed for pleasant and unpleasant tasting products, for agreeable and malodorous scents, and among both mistreatment victims and third parties. Our findings suggest that violations of dignity and respect can trigger an evolutionary based reaction that activates a human alarm system, warning individuals of impending threats even when no oral threat is imminent.

The current research investigates the role of fear in the creation of emotional attachment to a brand. Previous research examining the influence of incidental negative emotions on brand evaluations has generally found that negative emotions lead to negative evaluations. The current research suggests that for fear, the relationship may be more positive. Since people cope with fear through affiliation with others, in the absence of other individuals, consumers may seek affiliation with an available brand. This, in turn, will enhance emotional attachment to that brand. Four studies demonstrate that consumers who experience fear in the presence of a brand feel greater emotional brand attachment than consumers who experience other emotions such as happiness, sadness, or excitement. The findings from the research advance understanding of consumer-brand relationships by demonstrating that relationships between consumers and brands are not merely metaphorical. Rather, under certain circumstances, brands can actually fulfill interpersonal psychological needs.

Consumers from cultures that read from left to right possess a spatial representation of time whereby the past is visualized on the left and the future is visualized on the right. Across four studies, the current research investigates whether and how this past-left, future-right conceptualization of time affects attitudes toward time-related products. Specifically, when consumers view advertisements in which product images are positioned congruently (incongruently) with their spatial representation of time, they have more (less) favorable attitudes toward the product. This effect occurs for both products that naturally involve the progression of time (e.g., self-improvement products) and also products for which a time component is a desired attribute (e.g., antiques). The effect of horizontal position reverses among consumers who read from right to left. The mediating role of processing fluency is highlighted as an underlying mechanism, and the moderating role of need for structure is identified.

A long history of research has shown that experts’ well-developed knowledge structures provide numerous advantages in memory-based decisions and tasks. More recently, research has shown that in certain situations experts’ more detailed knowledge can hinder memory performance by resulting in the creation of false memories. The current research adds to this growing literature by showing how experts can fall prey to a different type of false memory when making product comparisons. Four studies demonstrate that in a product comparison context, in their attempt to make options more comparable, experts inadvertently “fill in the gap” by aligning nonalignable features in memory. This results in the false recall of aligned features that did not appear in the original descriptions. Experts’ higher sense of accountability for their judgments, coupled with their highly developed schemata, is identified as the mechanism underlying the effect.