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We aim to understand the distribution and environmental drivers for the occurrence of the European green toad (Bufotes viridis) in Austria and create breeding habitats for it. Citizen scientists can use a custom smartphone application (AmphiApp) to record data such as the calls of anurans and photographic documentation. The records are validated by experts. To provide breeding habitats for green toads, we gave citizen scientists 300 small plastic ponds (1.20L × 0.9W × 0.4D m) to place on their land (garden, backyard). These citizen scientists will monitor their pond every two weeks for two seasons (March–August 2024 & 2025) for the occurrence of amphibians and their invertebrate prey. During the first two months, most pond owners have been highly motivated and have followed the monitoring scheme, despite the involved procedure, likely due to our active engagement with them (e.g., during the pond delivery by team members, emails, phone calls and messaging within AmphiApp).

Agricultural intensification decreases the heterogeneity of the landscape and leads to a decline in hedgerows. As hedgerows provide important habitats for many taxa, this contributes to the loss of biodiversity in agroecosystems. However, the extent to which hedgerows, and in particular their habitat quality in terms of structural characteristics, also influence biodiversity-based ecosystem services is poorly studied. Here, we conducted a systematic review of the Scopus and other literature databases focusing on Central European and UK studies examining (1) the influence of hedgerow habitat quality on the biodiversity of arthropods, earthworms, birds, bats and small mammals and (2) the relationship between selected hedgerow parameters, animal taxa, and ecosystem services such as pollination, seed dispersal, pest and disease control and soil quality regulation. A total of 2260 studies (cut-off date: 13 September 2022) published between 1974 and 2022 were found. After sorting based on inclusion criteria related to the research focus, 89 studies remained for evaluation. Arthropods, birds, and small mammals were studied most frequently, earthworms and bats least frequently. The selected studies showed that structural diversity, layering, woody biomass and density were strongly positively correlated with animal species diversity, while hedgerow length, width and age showed less relevant relationships. Hedgerow connectivity, density, structural diversity, and layering were strongly positive associated with the provision of ecosystem services. We conclude that the structural diversity of hedgerows needs to be increased if their impact on biodiversity and ecosystem service provision is to be improved. It is therefore recommended that hedgerow management measures should specifically consider the ecological importance of the structural diversity of hedgerows.

Abstract Permaculture is proposed as a tool to design and manage agroecological systems in response to the pressing environmental challenges of soil degradation, climate change and biodiversity loss. However, scientific evidence on the effects of permaculture is still scarce. In this comprehensive study on a wide range of soil and biodiversity indicators, we examined nine farms utilizing permaculture and paired control fields with locally predominant agriculture in Central Europe. We found 27% higher soil carbon stocks on permaculture sites than on control fields, while soil bulk density was 20% lower and earthworm abundance was 201% higher. Moreover, concentrations of various soil macro- and micronutrients were higher on permaculture sites indicating better conditions for crop production. Species richness of vascular plants, earthworms and birds was 457%, 77% and 197% higher on permaculture sites, respectively. Our results suggest permaculture as effective tool for the redesign of farming systems towards environmental sustainability.

Abstract Glyphosate (GLY), the most widely used herbicide active ingredient (AI) in the world, is frequently detected in aquatic environments where it can affect non-target organisms. Globally, more than 2000 commercial GLY-based herbicides (GBHs) are used to control weeds. Non-target organisms are exposed to complex pesticide formulations under real environmental conditions, but the co-formulants contained in GBHs are classified as so-called inert and inactive ingredients in terms of their biological effects. The main objective of this comprehensive review is to compile the results of aquatic ecotoxicological studies on the side-effects of GLY, GBHs, and their formulating agents. Based on the results demonstrated for a variety of plant and animal aquatic organisms, oxidative stress appears to be a major trigger for these adverse effects, affecting the integrity of DNA and other biochemical functions. Furthermore, there is evidence of impairment of various physiological and behavioral functions. Adverse effects of GLY and GBHs have been observed even at very low concentrations. There are also differences in the sensitivity of the aquatic organisms tested, even with similar lifestyles, habitats or identical taxa. The studies typically investigate the short-term effects of a single exposure to GLY/GBH on a single species, whilst in reality multiple applications of GBHs together with other pesticides are common during a cropping cycle. Moreover, the interactions between GLY/GBHs and other aquatic contaminants are rarely studied. Higher toxicity of GBHs compared to GLY alone has often been observed, demonstrating that co-formulants can be highly toxic on their own and markedly increase the toxicity of the GBH formulation. The possible impurities in GBHs, such as heavy metals, can cause additional problems for the environment and food safety. The widespread and massive use of GBHs leads to increased exposure and environmental hazards. In addition, the need for a revision of the risk assessment system is emphasized. According to the results of aquatic ecotoxicological studies, the current use and pollution of the aquatic environment by GLY/GBHs is highly problematic and cannot be considered environmentally sustainable. It is, therefore, necessary to at least tighten the permitted forms of use.

Abstract Pesticides are transferred outside of cropland and can affect animals and plants. Here we investigated the distribution of 97 current use pesticides in soil and vegetation as central exposure matrices of insects. Sampling was conducted on 53 sites along eleven altitudinal transects in the Vinschgau valley (South Tyrol, Italy), in Europe’s largest apple growing area. A total of 27 pesticides (10 insecticides, 11 fungicides and 6 herbicides) were detected, originating mostly from apple orchards. Residue numbers and concentrations decreased with altitude and distance to orchards, but were even detected at the highest sites. Predictive, detection-based mapping indicates that pesticide mixtures can occur anywhere from the valley floor to mountain peaks. This study demonstrates widespread pesticide contamination of Alpine environments, creating contaminated landscapes. As residue mixtures have been detected in remote alpine ecosystems and conservation areas, we call for a reduction of pesticide use to prevent further contamination and loss of biodiversity.

Abstract Background Artificial light at night, also referred to as light pollution (LP), has been shown to affect many organisms. However, little is known about the extent to which ecological interactions between earthworms and plants are altered by LP. We investigated the effects of LP on anecic earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) that come to the surface at night to forage and mate, and on the germination and growth of the invasive and allergenic ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). In a full factorial pot experiment in the greenhouse, we tested four factors and their interactions: LP (5 lux vs. 0 lux at night), earthworms (two individuals vs. none), plant species (seeding of ragweed only vs. mixed with Phacelia seeds) and sowing depth (seed placed at the surface vs. in 5 cm depth). Data were analysed using Generalized Linear (Mixed) Models and multifactorial ANOVAs with soil parameters as covariates. Results Light pollution reduced earthworm surface activity by 76% as measured by casting activity and toothpick index; 85% of mating earthworms were observed in the absence of LP. Light pollution in interaction with earthworms reduced ragweed germination by 33%. However, LP increased ragweed height growth by 104%. Earthworms reduced ragweed germination especially when seeds were placed on the soil surface, suggesting seed consumption by earthworms. Conclusions Our data suggest that anecic earthworms are negatively affected by LP because reduced surface activity limits their ability to forage and mate. The extent to which earthworm-induced ecosystem services or community interactions are also affected by LP remains to be investigated. If the increased height growth of ragweed leads to increased pollen and seed production, it is likely that the competition of ragweed with field crops and the risks to human health will also increase under LP.

Artificial light at night (ALAN), also known as light pollution, is a growing environmental problem worldwide. However, only a few studies have examined whether soil organisms that search for food at the surface at night can be affected by ALAN. We investigated the effects of ALAN on the above-ground foraging activity of anecic earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris), on the soil water infiltration and on the germination and growth of a cover crop (Phacelia tanacetifolia). In a full-factorial greenhouse experiment, we tested four factors: ALAN (about 5 lx during the night vs. total darkness), earthworms (two specimens vs. none), plant species (Phacelia alone vs. mixed with ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia) and sowing depth (surface-sown vs. sown in 5 cm depth). Data were analysed using multifactorial ANOVAs. Earthworms removed 51% less surface litter under ALAN than under dark conditions. ALAN had no effect on Phacelia germination but resulted in increased height growth and biomass production when the seeds were buried. Earthworms reduced Phacelia germination and biomass production. ALAN reduced water leaching through the experimental units, probably due to interactions between the subsurface casts and plant roots. We conclude that ALAN, as emitted from streetlights, can lead to complex ecological effects in ecosystems that merit further investigation.

Abstract Glyphosate (GLY), the most widely used herbicide in the world, is frequently detected in various environmental matrices, including soil, the foundation of agriculture. In practice, more than 2000 GLY-based herbicide (GBH) products are used, consisting of one or more active ingredients (AIs) and so-called “inert” co-formulants that increase the efficacy of the AIs. However, the focus of ecotoxicological assessments is mainly on AIs, while organisms are exposed to complex pesticide formulations under real-world conditions. Overall, the effects on non-target organisms indicate a broad range of biochemical and physiological modes of action, which contrasts with the general assumption that herbicides are specific and act only on target plants. Both GLY alone and GBHs have unintended side-effects on many terrestrial organisms, including non-target plants, microorganisms, insects, spiders, or earthworms, as well as vertebrates such as amphibians, reptiles, or mammals. One of the triggering mechanisms for these effects is oxidative stress with consequences on biochemical parameters and DNA damage. In addition, disruptions of various physiological, behavioral and ecological processes have been reported. Most studies have examined the short-term effects of a single application of GLY/GBH to a single species. However, the agricultural practice of applying GBHs two to three times during a cultivation season over an extended period of time, the interactions with other pesticides and agrochemicals applied to the same field, and effects on ecological interactions within the field and landscape are rarely considered. In the vast majority of cases, the toxicity of GBHs exceeds the toxicity of GLY, demonstrating that supposedly inert co-formulants are either toxic in their own right or interact and add to the toxicity of AIs. The chemical diversity of different GBHs and the non-disclosure of the co-formulants make it difficult to attribute effects to specific chemical substances within a GBH. Moreover, impurities in GBHs (e.g., heavy metals such as arsenic, chromium, cobalt) pose additional environment and food safety risks. These impacts are even more critical because GBHs are so widely distributed worldwide and interact with other pollutants and environmental stressors. Based on the available literature on terrestrial ecotoxicity, and given the drastic decline in biodiversity, we conclude that the continued high use of GBHs, resulting in increased exposure and risk, cannot be considered ecologically sustainable.

Effects of mowing on vegetation parameters have been well studied. However, less is known about mowing effects on soil fauna and if soil properties alter this. We investigated earthworm communities in a long-term experiment 14 years after its establishment in 5 dry, fresh and moist grassland plots located in the Natura 2000 site Lainzer Tiergarten near Vienna, Austria (238–402 m a.s.l., 48°10′ N, 16°12′ E). The grasslands were either mowed once a year or every second year, or not mowed since being established. Earthworms were assessed using the non-destructive octet electro-shocking method. Additionally, vegetation composition, soil conductivity, temperature and moisture were assessed. We found 13 earthworm species across all treatments, although their abundance was generally low with 6.1 ± 4.7 worms m−2. The total earthworm abundance and species diversity was higher in dry compared to fresh and moist grasslands but was not affected by mowing frequency. Endogeic earthworms (Aporrectodea caliginosa, Aporrectodea rosea) and epigeics (Lumbricus rubellus) were more tolerant to mowing than anecics (Lumbricus terrestris, Allolobophora longa). Since plant species richness was highest in annually mown grasslands and earthworm species richness was positively related to plant species numbers, we recommend regular, low-input management to promote above- and belowground biodiversity in these grasslands.

Little is known about the non-target effects of glyphosate active ingredients (GLY) versus glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) formulations on soil organisms, and whether effects are influenced by environmental conditions. We investigated the avoidance behavior, biomass growth, and reproduction of earthworms (Eisenia fetida, E. andrei) in response to two GLYs (glyphosate ammonium and potassium salt), the corresponding GBHs (Touchdown Quattro, Roundup PowerFlex) containing these GLYs, and the “inert” co-formulant alkylpolyglycoside (APG) at two temperature (15 °C vs. 20 °C) and soil organic matter levels (3.2% vs. 4.3%). Earthworm avoidance was lower at high soil organic matter content, but remained unaffected by substances and temperature. Earthworm biomass growth and reproduction (cocoons and juveniles) were significantly affected by substances and temperature; reproduction was also affected by a substance and temperature interaction. Biomass growth was almost zero at higher temperature; reproduction was generally higher at higher temperature. More cocoons were produced under Roundup PowerFlex than under the corresponding AI, due to the impact of the co-formulant APG. No other differences were observed between GBH and the corresponding AIs. We conclude that the non-target effects of pesticides can only be fully assessed if all ingredients in a formulation are known and environmental parameters are included in environmental risk assessments.

Glyphosate is the most widely used active ingredient (AI) in glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) worldwide and is also known to affect a variety of soil organisms. However, we know little about how the effects of glyphosate AIs differ from those of GBHs that also contain so-called inert co-formulants. We conducted a greenhouse experiment using the model cover crop white mustard (Sinapis alba) to investigate the effects of three GBHs (Roundup PowerFlex, Roundup LB Plus, and Touchdown Quattro) and their respective glyphosate AIs (glyphosate potassium, isopropylamine, and diammonium salt) on epedaphic springtails (Sminthurinus niger; Collembola) activity in soils with low (3.0%) or high (4.1%) organic matter content (SOM). Springtail activity was assessed using pitfall traps. Most GBHs and AIs reduced springtail activity compared to mechanical removal of mustard in the short-term and even up to 5 months after application. GBHs and AIs differed considerably in their effects on springtail activity, and effects were modified by SOM content. Our results highlight the need to (i) distinguish between the effects of glyphosate AIs and commercial GBH formulations, (ii) disclose all ingredients of GBHs, as co-formulants also affect non-target organisms, and (iii) include soil properties in ecotoxicological risk assessments for soil organisms to better characterize the situation in the field.

Abstract Habitat fragmentation is one of the drivers for amphibian population declines globally. Especially in industrialized countries roads disrupt the seasonal migration of amphibians between hibernation and reproduction sites, often ending in roadkills. Thus, a timely installing of temporary mitigation measures is important for amphibian conservation. We wanted to find out if plant phenology can be a proxy in advance to determine the start of amphibian migration, since both phenomena are triggered by temperature. We analysed data of 3751 amphibian and 7818 plant phenology observations from citizen science projects in Austria between 2000 and 2018. Using robust regression modelling we compared the migration of common toads (Bufo bufo) and common frogs (Rana temporaria) with the phenology of five tree, one shrub, and one herb species. Results showed close associations between the migration of common frogs and phenological phases of European larch, goat willow and apricot. Models based on goat willow predict migration of common frog to occur 21 days after flowering, when flowering was observed on 60th day of year; apricot based models predict migration to occur 1 day after flowering, observed on the 75th day of year. Common toads showed weaker associations with plant phenology than common frogs. Our findings suggest that plant phenology can be used to determine the onset of temporary mitigation measures for certain amphibian species to prevent roadkills.

Glyphosate is the most widely used active ingredient (AI) in thousands of glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) worldwide. Short-term impacts of AIs or GBHs on earthworms are well known, but few studies have examined long-term legacy effects >3 months after application. In a pot experiment, we studied both short-term and long-term effects on deep burrowing earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and soil functions. Therefore, the cover crop Sinapis alba was grown in soils with either 3.0% or 4.1% soil organic matter content (SOM) and either sprayed with a GBH (Touchdown Quattro, Roundup PowerFlex, or Roundup LB Plus) or the respective glyphosate AI (diammonium-, potassium-, or isopropylamine-salt) or hand weeded (control). Long-term effects showed increased earthworm activity under GBHs even 4 months after application, but similar activity under AIs and control. Another application of the same treatments 5 months after the previous one also increased earthworm activity under GBHs, especially at high SOM levels. Water infiltration after a simulated heavy rainfall was 50% lower, and leaching was 30% higher under GBH than under AI application or hand weeding. Individual GBHs and AIs varied in their effects and were influenced by SOM and soil moisture. Full disclosure of all ingredients in GBH formulations would be necessary to allow a comprehensive assessment of environmental risks.

Abstract Wild bees are threatened by multiple interacting stressors, such as habitat loss, land use change, parasites, and pathogens. However, vineyards with vegetated inter‐rows can offer high floral resources within viticultural landscapes and provide foraging and nesting habitats for wild bees. Here, we assess how vineyard management regimes (organic vs. conventional; inter‐row vegetation management) and landscape composition determine the inter‐row plant and wild bee assemblages, as well as how these variables relate to functional traits in 24 Austrian and 10 South African vineyards. Vineyards had either permanent vegetation cover in untilled inter‐rows or temporary vegetation cover in infrequently tilled inter‐rows. Proportion of seminatural habitats (e.g., fallows, grassland, field margins) and woody structures (e.g., woodlots, single trees, tree rows) were used as proxies for landscape composition and mapped within 500‐m radius around the study vineyards. Organic vineyard management increased functional richness (FRic) of wild bees and flowering plants, with woody structures marginally increasing species richness and FRic of wild bees. Wild bee and floral traits were differently associated across the countries. In Austria, several bee traits (e.g., lecty, pollen collection type, proboscis length) were associated with flower color and symmetry, while in South African vineyards, only bees’ proboscis length was positively correlated with floral traits characteristic of Asteraceae flowers (e.g., ray–disk morphology, yellow colors). Solitary bee species in Austria benefitted from infrequent tillage, while ground nesting species preferred inter‐rows with undisturbed soils. Higher proportions of woody structures in surrounding landscapes resulted in less solitary and corbiculate bees in Austria, but more aboveground nesting species in South Africa. In both countries, associations between FRic of wild bees and flowering plants were positive both in organic and in conventional vineyards. We recommend the use of diverse cover crop seed mixtures to enhance plant flowering diversity in inter‐rows, to increase wild bee richness in viticultural landscapes.

There is much debate about whether the (mostly synthetic) pesticide active substances (AS) in conventional agriculture have different non-target effects than the natural AS in organic agriculture. We evaluated the official EU pesticide database to compare 256 AS that may only be used on conventional farmland with 134 AS that are permitted on organic farmland. As a benchmark, we used (i) the hazard classifications of the Globally Harmonized System (GHS), and (ii) the dietary and occupational health-based guidance values, which were established in the authorization procedure. Our comparison showed that 55% of the AS used only in conventional agriculture contained health or environmental hazard statements, but only 3% did of the AS authorized for organic agriculture. Warnings about possible harm to the unborn child, suspected carcinogenicity, or acute lethal effects were found in 16% of the AS used in conventional agriculture, but none were found in organic agriculture. Furthermore, the establishment of health-based guidance values for dietary and non-dietary exposures were relevant by the European authorities for 93% of conventional AS, but only for 7% of organic AS. We, therefore, encourage policies and strategies to reduce the use and risk of pesticides, and to strengthen organic farming in order to protect biodiversity and maintain food security.

The production of synthetic pesticides is energy intensive and can emit even more greenhouse gases (GHG) per kg than the production of synthetic fertilizers. However, this aspect is largely neglected when it comes to agriculture’s contribution to GHG emissions. Using official pesticide sales data from Austria from 2000 to 2019, we analyzed (i) trends in insecticide, fungicide, and herbicide use and calculated production-related GHG emissions, and (ii) the share of pesticide-related versus fertilizer-related GHG emissions in three agricultural crops with different pesticide intensities: sugar beets, apples, and grapevines. We found that between 2000 and 2019, insecticide amounts increased by 58%, fungicide amounts increased by 29%, and herbicide amounts decreased by 29%; associated GHG emissions showed similar patterns. During the same period, acreage under conventional arable crops, orchards, and vineyards decreased by an average of 19%, indicating an increase in management intensity. In intensive apple production, GHG emissions associated with pesticide production and application accounted for 51% of total GHG emissions, in viticulture 37%, and in sugar beets 12%. We have shown that GHG emissions due to pesticide production and application can be significant, especially for pesticide-intensive crops. We therefore recommend that these pesticide-derived GHG emissions should also be attributed to the agricultural sector.

The invasive Spanish slug (Arion vulgaris) is an important pest species in agriculture and horticulture in Europe. In the last decades it has spread across the continent where it outcompetes native slug and snail species, thus posing a threat for biodiversity. A popular anecdote suggests to promote Roman snails (Helix pomatia) in gardens because they are able to control A. vulgaris. We examined a potential interrelationship between these two species using a mesocosm experiment with lettuce plants. 13C-15N stable isotope labelling of lettuce allowed us to investigate interactions between Helix and Arion on weight gain/loss and herbivory. Additionally, we wanted to know whether different watering regimes (daily vs. every 3rd day watering of weekly amount) and earthworms alter these interactions. Egg predation of Helix on Arion eggs was further tested in a food-choice experiment. Arion showed a five times higher herbivory per body mass than Helix in a single-species setting. However, in mesocosms containing both species percentage of herbivory per body mass was significantly lower than in Arion-only mesocosms, especially when watered every three days. Overall isotope uptake via eaten lettuce was unaffected by the presence of the other species. Only very little predation (three out of 200 eggs) of Helix on Arion eggs was observed. Our results provide no evidence for a clear dismissal or confirmation of the popular gardener’s anecdote that Helix snails have a negative effect on Arion abundance or herbivory.

Abstract Background Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes L.) have become successful inhabitants of urban areas in recent years. However, our knowledge about the occurrence, distribution and association with land uses of these urban foxes is poor, partly because many favoured habitats are on private properties and therefore hardly accessible to scientists. We assumed that citizen science, i.e. the involvement of the public, could enable researchers to bridge this information gap. We analysed 1179 fox sightings in the city of Vienna, Austria reported via citizen science projects to examine relationships between foxes and the surrounding land use classes as well as sociodemographic parameters. Results Conditional probabilities of encountering foxes were substantially higher in gardens, areas with a low building density, parks or squares as compared to agricultural areas, industrial areas or forests. Generalized linear model analyses showed that sociodemographic parameters such as education levels, district area, population density and average household income additionally improved the predictability of fox sightings. Conclusions Reports of fox sightings by citizen scientists might help to support the establishment of wildlife management in cities. Additionally, these data could be used to address public health issues in relation with red foxes as they can carry zoonoses that are also dangerous to humans.

Abstract Background The Spanish slug (Arion vulgaris, also known as A. lusitanicus) is considered one of the most invasive species in agriculture, horticulture and private gardens all over Europe. Although this slug has been problematic for decades, there is still not much known about its occurrence across private gardens and the underlying meteorological and ecological factors. One reason for this knowledge gap is the limited access of researchers to private gardens. Here we used a citizen science approach to overcome this obstacle and examined whether the occurrence of Arionidae in Austrian gardens was associated with meteorological (air temperature, precipitation, global solar radiation, relative humidity) or ecological factors (plant diversity, earthworm activity). Occurrence of the invasive A. vulgaris versus the similar-looking native A. rufus was compared using a DNA-barcoding approach. Results Slugs were collected from 1061 gardens from the dry Pannonian lowland to the wet alpine climate (altitudinal range 742 m). Slug abundance in gardens was best explained and negatively associated with the parameters “sum of the mean air temperature in spring”, “number of frost days in the previous winter” and “mean daily global solar radiation on the day of data collection”. Precipitation, plant diversity and earthworm activity were also related to slug abundance, but positively. Out of our genetic sampling of collected slugs, 92% belonged to A. vulgaris. Conclusions Our study showed that citizen science (i) is a feasible approach to record species occurrence in restricted areas across a wide geographical range and (ii) could be more widely employed in order to identify underlying environmental factors of species occurrence.

The outcome of assessments of the biodiversity of a taxonomic group often depend on the sampling method. The choice of an adequate method is especially important for biomonitoring purposes. In this study, the effectiveness of two methods of sampling syrphids (Diptera: Syrphidae) is compared: observation plot method vs. line transect, both sampled by sweep netting. Altogether, 18 meadows were selected in three mountain regions in the Austrian and Swiss Alps. We recorded a significantly higher abundance and richness of syrphids using the observation plot method than the line transect method in 2015. Comparing data for one region recorded in 2015 and 2016, similar results were obtained. Syrphid species assemblages were affected by sampling method in both years. More syrphid species and individuals were recorded using the observation plot method, which makes it more suitable for studies aiming at comparing differences in the numbers of adult syrphids in different grassland habitats.

Inter-rows in vineyards are commonly tilled in order to control weeds and/or to conserve water. While impacts of tillage on earthworms are well studied in arable systems, very little is known from vineyards. In an experimental vineyard, the impact of four reduced tillage methods on earthworms was examined: rotary hoeing, rotary harrowing, grubbing and no tillage. According to an erosion prevention programme, tillage was applied every other inter-row only while alternating rows retained vegetated. Earthworms were extracted from the treated inter-rows 10, 36, 162 and 188 days after tillage. Across dates, tillage methods had no effect on overall earthworm densities or biomass. Considering each sampling date separately, earthworm densities were affected only at day 36 after tillage leading to lower densities under rotary hoeing (150.7 ± 42.5 worms/m2) and no tillage (117.3 ± 24.8 worms/m2) than under rotary harrowing (340.0 ± 87.4 worms/m2) and grubbing (242.7 ± 43.9 worms/m2). Time since tillage significantly increased earthworm densities or biomass, and affected soil moisture and temperature. Across sampling dates, earthworm densities correlated positively with soil moisture and negatively with soil temperature; individual earthworm mass increased with increasing time since tillage. It was concluded that reduced tillage in vineyards has little impact on earthworms when applied in spring under dry soil conditions.

Abstract Background Amphibians and reptiles are among the most endangered vertebrate species worldwide. However, little is known how they are affected by road-kills on tertiary roads and whether the surrounding landscape structure can explain road-kill patterns. The aim of our study was to examine the applicability of open-access remote sensing data for a large-scale citizen science approach to describe spatial patterns of road-killed amphibians and reptiles on tertiary roads. Using a citizen science app we monitored road-kills of amphibians and reptiles along 97.5 km of tertiary roads covering agricultural, municipal and interurban roads as well as cycling paths in eastern Austria over two seasons. Surrounding landscape was assessed using open access land cover classes for the region (Coordination of Information on the Environment, CORINE). Hotspot analysis was performed using kernel density estimation (KDE+). Relations between land cover classes and amphibian and reptile road-kills were analysed with conditional probabilities and general linear models (GLM). We also estimated the potential cost-efficiency of a large scale citizen science monitoring project. Results We recorded 180 amphibian and 72 reptile road-kills comprising eight species mainly occurring on agricultural roads. KDE+ analyses revealed a significant clustering of road-killed amphibians and reptiles, which is an important information for authorities aiming to mitigate road-kills. Overall, hotspots of amphibian and reptile road-kills were next to the land cover classes arable land, suburban areas and vineyards. Conditional probabilities and GLMs identified road-kills especially next to preferred habitats of green toad, common toad and grass snake, the most often found road-killed species. A citizen science approach appeared to be more cost-efficient than monitoring by professional researchers only when more than 400 km of road are monitored. Conclusions Our findings showed that freely available remote sensing data in combination with a citizen science approach would be a cost-efficient method aiming to identify and monitor road-kill hotspots of amphibians and reptiles on a larger scale.

Land use at landscape and field scales can increase the diversity and abundance of natural enemies for pest control. In this study, we investigated interactions between landscape elements (semi-natural vegetation, olive orchards, vineyards, other agricultural areas) and inter-row management (vegetation cover vs. bare soil) in relation to arthropod populations in Andalusian vineyards. Arthropods were collected from grapevine foliage in 15 vineyards using suction sampling. Landscape structure was analyzed within a 750 m radius surrounding the studied vineyards. Arthropods were categorized into functional groups (predators, parasitoids, herbivores), and their responses to the most influencing factors were analyzed by likelihood methods and model selection. Of the total of 650 arthropods collected, 48% were predators, 33% herbivores and 19% parasitoids. Numbers of predatory aeolothrips, parasitoids and herbivorous cicadas in the study vineyards decreased with an increased proportion of vineyards in the surroundings. Spider populations in vineyards increased with increasing proportions of other agricultural fields (non-flowering crops) in the surroundings. Semi-natural elements and olive orchards had no influence on the abundance of collected arthropods. We observed synergistic effects between landscape elements and inter-row management. The total numbers of arthropods, herbivores and parasitoids in vineyards benefitted from inter-row vegetation, while spiders benefitted from bare soil. Our findings underline the importance of both surrounding landscape elements and vineyard ground cover management to promote beneficial arthropods for potential natural pest control.

Background Glyphosate-based herbicides are the most widely used pesticides in agriculture, horticulture, municipalities and private gardens that can potentially contaminate nearby water bodies inhabited by amphibians and algae. Moreover, the development and diversity of these aquatic organisms could also be affected by human-induced climate change that might lead to more periods with extreme temperatures. However, to what extent non-target effects of these herbicides on amphibians or algae are altered by varying temperature is not well known. Methods We studied effects of five concentrations of the glyphosate-based herbicide formulation Roundup PowerFlex (0, 1.5, 3, 4 mg acid equivalent glyphosate L−1 as a one time addition and a pulse treatment of totally 4 mg a.e. glyphosate L−1) on larval development of Common toads (Bufo bufo, L.; Amphibia: Anura) and associated algae communities under two temperature regimes (15 vs. 20 °C). Results Herbicide contamination reduced tail growth (−8%), induced the occurrence of tail deformations (i.e. lacerated or crooked tails) and reduced algae diversity (−6%). Higher water temperature increased tadpole growth (tail and body length (tl/bl) +66%, length-to-width ratio +4%) and decreased algae diversity (−21%). No clear relation between herbicide concentrations and tadpole growth or algae density or diversity was observed. Interactive effects of herbicides and temperature affected growth parameters, tail deformation and tadpole mortality indicating that the herbicide effects are temperature-dependent. Remarkably, herbicide-temperature interactions resulted in deformed tails in 34% of all herbicide treated tadpoles at 15 °C whereas no tail deformations were observed for the herbicide-free control at 15 °C or any tadpole at 20 °C; herbicide-induced mortality was higher at 15 °C but lower at 20 °C. Discussion These herbicide- and temperature-induced changes may have decided effects on ecological interactions in freshwater ecosystems. Although no clear dose-response effect was seen, the presence of glyphosate was decisive for an effect, suggesting that the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) in our study was 1.5 mg a.e. glyphosate L−1 water. Overall, our findings also question the relevance of pesticide risk assessments conducted at standard temperatures.

Glyphosate-based herbicide formulations are broadly used in agriculture, silviculture, horticulture as well as in private gardens all over the world, thus posing the risk of potential contamination of nearby aquatic bodies inhabited by amphibians. Concurrently, climate change can be expected to alter the temperature of amphibian breeding sites. However, while either glyphosate-based herbicides or temperature have been shown to separately affect the development of amphibians, very little is known on possible interactive effects. We studied the impact of herbicide concentrations and temperature on growth and development of eggs and tadpoles of the Common toad (Bufo bufo L.). We hypothesized that (i) eggs would be better protected against herbicides than tadpoles because of their jelly coating, (ii) that higher temperatures would reduce potential herbicide effects because of an accelerated growth and a lower sensitivity of larger specimens. We conducted one experiment starting with eggs (Gosner stage, GS 9) and another experiment starting with tadpoles (GS 21-24) using a full factorial design with 5 concentrations of the herbicide formulation Roundup® LB Plus (0 mg acid equivalent L-1, 0.5 mg a.e. L-1, 1.0 mg a.e. L-1 or 1.5 mg a.e. L-1 and a pulse treatment with 3-4 times addition of 0.5 a.e. mg L-1 over the course of several weeks) and two temperature levels (15°C and 20°C). Contrary to our expectation, our results showed that toad eggs are more sensitive to herbicides than tadpoles leading to an averaged 31% increase in total length, tail length and body length compared to the herbicide-free control. Tadpole morphology, development or mortality was not influenced by herbicides. Higher temperature accelerated growth of both eggs and tadpoles. This is among the first study showing interactive effects between herbicides and temperature especially for egg development resulting in more pronounced herbicide effects at lower temperatures than at higher temperatures.

In large parts of Europe Pardosa spp. (Lycosidae) are among the most abundant wolf spiders in arable fields and potentially important natural control agents of pests. We studied the influence of landscape factors on activity density, adult body size and fecundity of P. agrestis in 29 winter oilseed rape fields (Brassica napus L.) in Eastern Austria using pitfall traps. Landscape data were obtained for eight circular landscape sections around each field (radii 250-2000 m). Multivariate regression models were used to analyze the data. Activity density was highest when the length of strips of grassy road-sides in the surroundings was highest and distance to the next grassy fallow lowest. Body size was negatively related to activity density and to the length of road-side strips and positively to woody areas in the vicinity of the fields. Clutch size was unrelated to any of the landscape factors tested but was positively correlated with female body size. Woody areas and grassy fallow in the close vicinity of the fields had a positive influence on number of offspring per female and total number of offspring. These results indicate that various non-crop components in the landscape surrounding oilseed rape fields can specifically influence the activity density and fitness-related traits of P. agrestis in crops. The possible role of Pardosa spp. in natural pest control is discussed.

Climate change scenarios for Central Europe predict less frequent but heavier rainfalls and longer drought periods during the growing season. This is expected to alter arthropods in agroecosystems that are important as biocontrol agents, herbivores or food for predators (e.g. farmland birds). In a lysimeter facility (totally 18 3-m2-plots), we experimentally tested the effects of long-term past vs. prognosticated future rainfall variations (15% increased rainfall per event, 25% more dry days) according to regionalized climate change models from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on aboveground arthropods in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivated at three different soil types (calcaric phaeozem, calcic chernozem and gleyic phaeozem). Soil types were established 17 years and rainfall treatments one month before arthropod sampling; treatments were fully crossed and replicated three times. Aboveground arthropods were assessed by suction sampling, their mean abundances (± SD) differed between April, May and June with 20 ± 3 m-2, 90 ± 35 m-2 and 289 ± 93 individuals m-2, respectively. Averaged across sampling dates, future rainfall reduced the abundance of spiders (Araneae, -47%), cicadas and leafhoppers (Auchenorrhyncha, -39%), beetles (Coleoptera, -52%), ground beetles (Carabidae, -41%), leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae, -64%), spring tails (Collembola, -58%), flies (Diptera, -73%) and lacewings (Neuroptera, -73%) but increased the abundance of snails (Gastropoda, +69%). Across sampling dates, soil types had no effects on arthropod abundances. Arthropod diversity was neither affected by rainfall nor soil types. Arthropod abundance was positively correlated with weed biomass for almost all taxa; abundance of Hemiptera and of total arthropods was positively correlated with weed density. These detrimental effects of future rainfall varieties on arthropod taxa in wheat fields can potentially alter arthropod-associated agroecosystem services.

Earthworms (EWs) can modify soil structure and nutrient availability, and hence alter conditions for plant growth through their burrowing and casting activities. However, few studies have specifically quantified EW effects by experimentally manipulating EW densities (EWDs). In an earlier field study in native grassland ecosystems exposed to ambient and experimentally elevated rainfall (+280 mm year-1, projected under some climate change scenarios), we found no effects of EWDs (37, 114, 169 EW m-2) and corresponding EW activity on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP), even though soil nutrient availability likely increased with increasing EWDs. The lack of effects of EWDs on ANPP suggested that EWs may have adversely affected root systems in that study in some way. The objective of the present study was to quantify responses of root length density (RLD), using data collected from the same grassland plots during the earlier study. RLDs were highest in plots with low EWDs and decreased in plots with higher EWDs. Elevated rainfall primarily increased RLDs in the low EWD treatment (by almost +40%). Reductions in RLDs resulting from increased EWDs did not affect ANPP. Our results indicate that elevating EWDs above ambient levels may limit root growth through large increases in soil bioturbation, but concurrent increases in cast production and nutrient availability may compensate for the suppression of root nutrient absorbing surface area leaving ANPP unchanged, but with shifts in growth (biomass) allocation toward shoots. Similarly, reductions in EWDs appeared to promote higher RLDs that increased soil nutrient foraging in soil with lower amounts of nutrients because of reduced casting activity. Amplified responses observed when rainfall during the growing season was increased suggest that EWDs may mainly affect RLDs and above- vs. belowground growth (biomass) allocation under climate changes that include more frequent wetter-than-average growing seasons.

Road traffic has severe effects on animals, especially when road-kills are involved. In many countries, official road-kill data are provided by hunters or police; there are also road-kill observations reported by citizen scientists. The aim of the current study was to test whether road-kill reports by hunters stem from similar landscapes than those reported by citizen scientists. We analysed the surrounding landscapes of 712 road-kill reportings of European hares in the province of Lower Austria. Our data showed that road-killed hares reported both by hunters and citizens are predominantly surrounded by arable land. No difference of hedges and solitary trees could be found between the two datasets. However, significant differences in landcover classes and surrounding road networks indicate that hunters’ and citizen scientists’ data are different. Hunters reported hares from landscapes with significantly higher percentages of arable land, and greater lengths of secondary roads. In contrast, citizens reported hares from landscapes with significantly higher percentages of urban or industrial areas and greater lengths of motorways, primary roads, and residential roads. From this we argue that hunters tend to report data mainly from their hunting areas, whereas citizens report data during their daily routine on the way to/from work. We conclude that a citizen science approach is an important source for road-kill data when used in addition to official data with the aim of obtaining an overview of road-kill events on a landscape scale.