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The Opalinus Clay is notable in Switzerland as being the selected host rock for deep geological disposal of radioactive waste. Since the early 1990’s, this argillaceous mudstone formation of Jurassic age has been intensively studied within the framework of national and international projects to characterize its geological, hydrological, mechanical, thermal, chemical, and biological properties. While there is no formal stratigraphic subdivision, the Opalinus Clay lithology is classically divided into several, dam- to m-scale sub-units (or facies), depending on location. Recent multi-proxy studies (combining petrographic, petrophysical, geochemical, and mineralogical analyses) have however demonstrated that high, intra-facies, lithological heterogeneity occurs at the dm- to cm-scale. To constrain this small-scale heterogeneity into distinct lithological units (subfacies), the present study aims at defining and presenting a convenient subfacies classification scheme covering the overall Opalinus Clay lithology across northern Switzerland. Petrographic (macro- and microfacies), mineralogical (X-ray diffraction) and textural (image analysis, machine learning and 3D X-ray computed tomography) analyses are performed on diverse drill cores from the Mont Terri rock laboratory (northwestern Switzerland), and results are extended further to the east (Riniken, Weiach, and Benken). Most of the investigated Opalinus Clay can be described by the use of five distinctive subfacies types (SF1 to SF5), which are visually and quantitatively distinguishable by texture (grain size, bedding, fabric, and color) and composition (nature and mineralogy of components). The five subfacies types can be further refined by additional attributes and sedimentary characteristics (biogenic, diagenetic, and structural). Eventually, the widespread and consistent use of standardized Opalinus Clay subfacies types provides the means to harmonize petrographic descriptions within multidisciplinary research projects, enhance reproducibility of in situ experiments, and further evidence the tight relations between lithology and various rock properties., Frontiers in Earth Science, 9, ISSN:2296-6463

Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) plays important roles in the global climate system and the global ocean nutrient and carbon cycles. However, it is unclear how AAIW responds to global climate changes. In particular, neodymium isotopic composition (epsilon(Nd)) reconstructions from different locations from the tropical Atlantic have led to a debate on the relationship between northward penetration of AAIW into the tropical Atlantic and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability during the last deglaciation. We resolve this controversy by studying the transient oceanic evolution during the last deglaciation using a neodymium-enabled ocean model. Our results suggest a coherent response of AAIW and AMOC: when AMOC weakens, the northward penetration and transport of AAIW decrease while its depth and thickness increase. Our study highlights that as part of the return flow of the North Atlantic Deep Water, the northward penetration of AAIW in the Atlantic is determined predominately by AMOC intensity. Moreover, the inconsistency among different tropical Atlantic epsilon(Nd) reconstructions is reconciled by considering their corresponding core locations and depths, which were influenced by different water masses in the past. The very radiogenic water from the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, which was previously overlooked in the interpretations of deglacial epsilon(Nd) variability, can be transported to shallow layers during active AMOC and modulates epsilon(Nd) in the tropical Atlantic. Changes in the AAIW core depth must also be considered. Thus, interpretation of epsilon(Nd) reconstructions from the tropical Atlantic is more complicated than suggested in previous studies.

We use the Bern3D model of intermediate complexity to examine the marine cycle of isotopes 231Pa and 230Th and the relationship between the particle-bound ratio Pa p / Th p and changes in the formation of the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). Model parameters describing reversible scavenging of isotopes by organic particles, opal, calcite and resuspended sediments were systematically varied and alternative sink parametrisations explored. It proves difficult to simultaneously achieve a good agreement with observations of dissolved and particle-associated concentrations of 231Pa and 230Th ( Pa d , Th d , Pa p , Th p ) as well as the particle-bound ratio Pa p / Th p within the classical concept of reversible scavenging alone. Agreement between simulated and observed Pa d , Th d and estimates of mean ocean residence times is improved by taking into account simplified representations of additional sinks at the sea floor (bottom scavenging) and at continental boundaries (boundary scavenging). We also find improved agreement between model and data by increasing lateral advection, in particular for Pa d . These results point to the importance of sink processes that act in addition to reversible scavenging to shape the steady state distribution of 231Pa and, to a lesser degree, of 230Th. In transient experiments in which the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is periodically turned on and off, we find a strong statistical relationship between variations in AMOC strength and Pa p / Th p at great depths in the Northwest Atlantic region. These conclusions are robust across the range of sink parametrisations, that are consistent with estimates in the mean ocean residence time of 231Pa and 230Th. Our results indicate that the relationship between Pa p / Th p and AMOC-strength may not be fundamentally affected by uncertainties in sink processes, at least on the large spatial and temporal scale considered here, and support the idea that changes in Pa p / Th p in sediments of the Northwest Atlantic are indicative of changes in AMOC strength. Taking into account our simplified approach, our results indicate that the relationship between Pa p / Th p and AMOC-strength in the deep Northwest Atlantic is not affected by boundary scavenging or bottom scavenging. Our results thus support the idea that changes in Pa p / Th p in sediments of the Northwest Atlantic are indicative of changes in AMOC strength.

Neodymium (Nd) isotope ratio (εNd) is a quasi-conservative water mass tracer and has been used increasingly as paleoclimate proxy to indicate the past evolution of ocean circulation. However, there are many uncertainties in interpreting εNd reconstructions. For the purposes of direct comparison between climate models and proxy reconstructions, we implement Nd isotopes (143Nd and 144Nd) in the ocean model of the Community Earth System Model (CESM). Two versions of Nd tracers are implemented: one is the "abiotic" Nd in which the particle fields are prescribed as the particle climatology generated by the marine ecosystem module of the CESM under present day forcing; the other is the "biotic" Nd that is coupled with the marine ecosystem module. Under present day climate forcing, our model is able to simulate both Nd concentrations and εNd in good agreement with available observations. Also, Nd concentration and εNd in our model show similar sensitivities to the total boundary source and the ratio between particle related Nd and dissolved Nd as in previous modeling study (Rempfer et al., 2011). Therefore, our Nd-enabled ocean model provides a promising tool to study past changes in ocean and climate.

Neodymium (Nd) isotopes are an important geochemical tool to trace the present and past water mass mixing as well as continental inputs. The distribution of Nd concentrations in open ocean surface waters (0–100 m) is generally assumed to be controlled by lateral mixing of Nd from coastal surface currents and by removal through reversible particle scavenging. However, using 228Ra activity as an indicator of coastal water mass influence, surface water Nd concentration data available on key oceanic transects as a whole do not support the above scenario. From a global compilation of available data, we find that more stratified regions are generally associated with low surface Nd concentrations. This implies that upper ocean vertical supply may be an as yet neglected primary factor in determining the basin-scale variations of surface water Nd concentrations. Similar to the mechanism of nutrients supply, it is likely that stratification inhibits vertical supply of Nd from the subsurface thermocline waters and thus the magnitude of Nd flux to the surface layer. Consistently, the estimated required input flux of Nd to the surface layer to maintain the observed concentrations could be nearly two orders of magnitudes larger than riverine/dust flux, and also larger than the model-based estimation on shelf-derived coastal flux. In addition, preliminary results from modeling experiments reveal that the input from shallow boundary sources, riverine input, and release from dust are actually not the primary factors controlling Nd concentrations most notably in the Pacific and Southern Ocean surface waters.

The neodymium (Nd) isotopic composition (ϵNd) of seawater is a quasi-conservative tracer of water mass mixing and is assumed to hold great potential for paleoceanographic studies. Here we present a comprehensive approach for the simulation of the two neodymium isotopes 143Nd, and 144Nd using the Bern3D model, a low resolution ocean model. The high computational efficiency of the Bern3D model in conjunction with our comprehensive approach allows us to systematically and extensively explore the sensitivity of Nd concentrations and ϵNd to the parametrisation of sources and sinks. Previous studies have been restricted in doing so either by the chosen approach or by computational costs. Our study thus presents the most comprehensive survey of the marine Nd cycle to date. Our model simulates both Nd concentrations as well as ϵNd in good agreement with observations. ϵNd covaries with salinity, thus underlining its potential as a water mass proxy. Results confirm that the continental margins are required as a Nd source to simulate Nd concentrations and ϵNd consistent with observations. We estimate this source to be slightly smaller than reported in previous studies and find that above a certain magnitude its magnitude affects ϵNd only to a small extent. On the other hand, the parametrisation of the reversible scavenging considerably affects the ability of the model to simulate both, Nd concentrations and ϵNd. Furthermore, despite their small contribution, we find dust and rivers to be important components of the Nd cycle. In additional experiments, we systematically varied the diapycnal diffusivity as well as the Atlantic-to-Pacific freshwater flux to explore the sensitivity of Nd concentrations and its isotopic signature to the strength and geometry of the overturning circulation. These experiments reveal that Nd concentrations and ϵNd are comparatively little affected by variations in diapycnal diffusivity and the Atlantic-to-Pacific freshwater flux. In contrast, an adequate representation of Nd sources and sinks is crucial to simulate Nd concentrations and ϵNd consistent with observations. The good agreement of our results with observations paves the way for the evaluation of the paleoceanographic potential of ϵNd in further model studies.

The European winter of 2006–2007 was unusually mild, with record high mean winter air temperatures comparable with those predicted to become the norm by the end of the current century as a result of climate warming. In Lake Zurich and Greifensee, two neighboring Swiss perialpine lakes with several decades of data, mean lake temperatures for this winter were the highest ever recorded, as was thermal stability. Associated with the high thermal stability, mean winter oxygen concentrations in Lake Zurich were unusually high in the epilimnion and metalimnion, but normal in the hypolimnion. In Greifensee, however, which is much shallower, mean winter oxygen concentrations did not deviate substantially from the norm anywhere in the water column. From 17–19 January 2007, an unusually severe cyclonic storm, ‘‘Kyrill,’’ traversed Europe. Monthly oxygen profiles suggest that the stabilizing effect of the mild winter on the two lakes was greatest before the occurrence of the storm, and that wind mixing resulted in a deepening of the mixed layer in both lakes. The mixing was able to encompass the entire water column of Greifensee, but not of Lake Zurich. These results, supported by more limited data from two other neighboring lakes, suggest that climate warming will likely inhibit complete mixing of some deep, temperate, normally monomictic lakes in winter even when extremely intense cyclonic storms occur. In shallower lakes, however, complete mixing is unlikely to be inhibited.

The European Alpine region response to global warming is particularly sensitive (BENISTON et al. 1994). Some deep, perialpine lakes in this region are undergoing long-term warming and a reduction in the duration of winter homothermy (LIVINGSTONE 2003). In mild winters, a reduction in the intensity and duration of vertical mixing can result in low deep-water oxygen concentrations (LIVINGSTONE 1997). The availability of long time-series of temperature and oxygen from some Swiss perialpine lakes allows the response of hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations to interannual variations in winter climate to be analysed (e.g., ORN 1980, THOMAS & ORN 1984). We used a superposed epoch analysis to investigate the effect of climaterelated variations in the duration of winter homothermy on mean hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations in 3 of these lakes.

The sensitivity of the neodymium isotopic composition (ϵNd) to tectonic rearrangements of seaways is investigated using an Earth System Model of Intermediate Complexity. The shoaling and closure of the Central American Seaway (CAS) is simulated, as well as the opening and deepening of Drake Passage (DP). Multiple series of equilibrium simulations with various intermediate depths are performed for both seaways, providing insight into ϵNd and circulation responses to progressive throughflow evolutions. Furthermore, the sensitivity of these responses to the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and the neodymium boundary source is examined. Modeled ϵNd changes are compared to sediment core and ferromanganese (Fe-Mn) crust data. The model results indicate that the North Atlantic ϵNd response to the CAS shoaling is highly dependent on the AMOC state, i.e., on the AMOC strength before the shoaling to shallow depths (preclosure). Three scenarios based on different AMOC forcings are discussed, of which the model-data agreement favors a shallow preclosure (Miocene) AMOC (∼6 Sv). The DP opening causes a rather complex circulation response, resulting in an initial South Atlantic ϵNd decrease preceding a larger increase. This feature may be specific to our model setup, which induces a vigorous CAS throughflow that is strongly anticorrelated to the DP throughflow. In freshwater experiments following the DP deepening, ODP Site 1090 is mainly influenced by AMOC and DP throughflow changes, while ODP Site 689 is more strongly influenced by Southern Ocean Meridional Overturning Circulation and CAS throughflow changes. The boundary source uncertainty is largest for shallow seaways and at shallow sites.

Received 27 April 2012; revised 12 October 2012; accepted 14 October 2012; published 12 December 2012. (1) It has been argued that past changes in the sources of Nd could hamper the use of the Nd isotopic composition (� Nd) as a proxy for past changes in the overturning of deep water masses. Here we reconsider uncertainties associated withNd in seawater due to potential regional to global scale changes in the sources of Nd by applying a modeling approach. For illustrative purposes we describe rather extreme changes in the magnitude of source fluxes, their isotopic composition or both. We find that the largest effects onNd result from changes in the boundary source. Considerable changes also result from variations in the magnitude orNd of dust and rivers but are largely constrained to depths shallower than 1 km, except if they occur in or upstream of regions where deep water masses are formed. From these results we conclude that changes in Nd sources have the potential to affectNd. However, substantial changes are required to generate large-scale changes inNd in deep water that are similar in magnitude to those that have been reconstructed from sediment cores or result from changes in meridional overturning circulation in model experiments. Hence, it appears that a shift inNd comparable to glacial-interglacial variations is difficult to obtain by changes in Nd sources alone, but that more subtle variations can be caused by such changes and must be interpreted with caution.

Using a cost-efficient climate model, the effect of changes in overturning circulation on neodymium isotopic composition,ϵNd, is systematically examined for the first time. Idealized sequences of abrupt climate changes are induced by the application of periodic freshwater fluxes to the North Atlantic (NA) and the Southern Ocean (SO), thus mainly affecting either the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) or Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). Variations in ϵNd reflect weakening and strengthening of the formation of NADW and AABW, changes in ϵNdof end-members are relatively small. Relationships betweenϵNd and the strength of NADW or AABW are more pronounced for AABW than for NADW. Atlantic patterns of variations in ϵNd systematically differ between NA and SO experiments. Additionally, the signature of changes in ϵNd in the Atlantic and the Pacific is alike in NA but opposite in SO experiments. Discrimination between NA and SO experiments is therefore possible based on the Atlantic pattern of variations in ϵNd and the contrariwise behavior of ϵNd in the Atlantic and the Pacific. In further experiments we examined the effect of variations in magnitudes of particle export fluxes. Within the examined range, and although settling particles represent the only sink of Nd, their effects on ϵNd are relatively small. Our results confirm the large potential of ϵNd as a paleocirculation tracer but also indicate its limitations of quantitative reconstructions of changes in the Atlantic Meridional Ocean Circulation.