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Ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) has proven transformative for our understanding of the human genome and proteome by illuminating thousands of non-canonical sites of ribosome translation outside of the currently annotated coding sequences (CDSs). A conservative estimate suggests that at least 7,000 non-canonical open reading frames (ORFs) are translated, which, at first glance, has the potential to expand the number of human protein-coding sequences by 30%, from ∼19,500 annotated CDSs to over 26,000. Yet, additional scrutiny of these ORFs has raised numerous questions about what fraction of them truly produce a protein product and what fraction of those can be understood as proteins according to conventional understanding of the term. Adding further complication is the fact that published estimates of non-canonical ORFs vary widely by around 30-fold, from several thousand to several hundred thousand. The summation of this research has left the genomics and proteomics communities both excited by the prospect of new coding regions in the human genome, but searching for guidance on how to proceed. Here, we discuss the current state of non-canonical ORF research, databases, and interpretation, focusing on how to assess whether a given ORF can be said to be “protein-coding”.In briefThe human genome encodes thousands of non-canonical open reading frames (ORFs) in addition to protein-coding genes. As a nascent field, many questions remain regarding non-canonical ORFs. How many exist? Do they encode proteins? What level of evidence is needed for their verification? Central to these debates has been the advent of ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) as a method to discern genome-wide ribosome occupancy, and immunopeptidomics as a method to detect peptides that are processed and presented by MHC molecules and not observed in traditional proteomics experiments. This article provides a synthesis of the current state of non-canonical ORF research and proposes standards for their future investigation and reporting.HighlightsCombined use of Ribo-seq and proteomics-based methods enables optimal confidence in detecting non-canonical ORFs and their protein products.Ribo-seq can provide more sensitive detection of non-canonical ORFs, but data quality and analytical pipelines will impact results.Non-canonical ORF catalogs are diverse and span both high-stringency and low-stringency ORF nominations.A framework for standardized non-canonical ORF evidence will advance the research field.Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Methods, Figures, Tables, and References from Characterization of KRAS Rearrangements in Metastatic Prostate Cancer

Supplementary Figure 4. Overlap of positive and negative correlations.

Supplementary Methods and Data (posted 7/5/2011) from Characterization of KRAS Rearrangements in Metastatic Prostate Cancer

Ewing's sarcoma family of tumors (ESFT) refers to aggressive malignancies which frequently harbor characteristic EWS-FLI1 or EWS-ERG genomic fusions. Here, we report that these fusion products interact with the DNA damage response protein and transcriptional coregulator PARP-1. ESFT cells, primary tumor xenografts, and tumor metastases were all highly sensitive to PARP1 inhibition. Addition of a PARP1 inhibitor to the second-line chemotherapeutic agent temozolamide resulted in complete responses of all treated tumors in an EWS-FLI1–driven mouse xenograft model of ESFT. Mechanistic investigations revealed that DNA damage induced by expression of EWS-FLI1 or EWS-ERG fusion genes was potentiated by PARP1 inhibition in ESFT cell lines. Notably, EWS-FLI1 fusion genes acted in a positive feedback loop to maintain the expression of PARP1, which was required for EWS-FLI–mediated transcription, thereby enforcing oncogene-dependent sensitivity to PARP-1 inhibition. Together, our findings offer a strong preclinical rationale to target the EWS-FLI1:PARP1 intersection as a therapeutic strategy to improve the treatment of ESFTs. Cancer Res; 72(7); 1608–13. ©2012 AACR.

Recurrent gene fusions involving oncogenic ETS transcription factors (including ERG, ETV1, and ETV4) have been identified in a large fraction of prostate cancers. The most common fusions contain the 5′ untranslated region of TMPRSS2 fused to ERG. Recently, we identified additional 5′ partners in ETV1 fusions, including TMPRSS2, SLC45A3, HERV-K_22q11.23, C15ORF21, and HNRPA2B1. Here, we identify ETV5 as the fourth ETS family member involved in recurrent gene rearrangements in prostate cancer. Characterization of two cases with ETV5 outlier expression by RNA ligase–mediated rapid amplification of cDNA ends identified one case with a TMPRSS2:ETV5 fusion and one case with a SLC45A3:ETV5 fusion. We confirmed the presence of these fusions by quantitative PCR and fluorescence in situ hybridization. In vitro recapitulation of ETV5 overexpression induced invasion in RWPE cells, a benign immortalized prostatic epithelial cell line. Expression profiling and an integrative molecular concepts analysis of RWPE-ETV5 cells also revealed the induction of an invasive transcriptional program, consistent with ERG and ETV1 overexpression in RWPE cells, emphasizing the functional redundancy of ETS rearrangements. Together, our results suggest that the family of 5′ partners previously identified in ETV1 gene fusions can fuse with other ETS family members, suggesting numerous rare gene fusion permutations in prostate cancer. [Cancer Res 2008;68(1):73–80]

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Supplementary Figures 1-2, Tables 1-2 from Characterization of TMPRSS2:ETV5 and SLC45A3:ETV5 Gene Fusions in Prostate Cancer

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Impairment of double-stranded DNA break (DSB) repair is essential to many cancers. However, although mutations in DSB repair proteins are common in hereditary cancers, mechanisms of impaired DSB repair in sporadic cancers remain incompletely understood. Here, we describe the first role for a long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) in DSB repair in prostate cancer. We identify PCAT-1, a prostate cancer outlier lncRNA, which regulates cell response to genotoxic stress. PCAT-1 expression produces a functional deficiency in homologous recombination through its repression of the BRCA2 tumor suppressor, which, in turn, imparts a high sensitivity to small-molecule inhibitors of PARP1. These effects reflected a posttranscriptional repression of the BRCA2 3′UTR by PCAT-1. Our observations thus offer a novel mechanism of “BRCAness” in sporadic cancers. Cancer Res; 74(6); 1651–60. ©2014 AACR.

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Minimal residual disease (MRD) assessment has revolutionized the clinical management of pediatric leukemias but has remained challenging to implement in pediatric brain tumors. In this issue of Cancer Cell, Liu et al. describe an approach to measuring MRD in pediatric medulloblastoma through the use of cell-free DNA in cerebrospinal fluid, with important prognostic implications.

Ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) has catalyzed a paradigm shift in our understanding of the translational ‘vocabulary’ of the human genome, discovering thousands of translated open reading frames (ORFs) within long non-coding RNAs and presumed untranslated regions of protein-coding genes. However, reference gene annotation projects have been circumspect in their incorporation of these ORFs due to uncertainties about their experimental reproducibility and physiological roles. Yet, it is indisputable that certain Ribo-seq ORFs make stable proteins, others mediate gene regulation, and many have medical implications. Ultimately, the absence of standardized ORF annotation has created a circular problem: while Ribo-seq ORFs remain unannotated by reference biological databases, this lack of characterisation will thwart research efforts examining their roles. Here, we outline the initial stages of a community-led effort supported by GENCODE / Ensembl, HGNC and UniProt to produce a consolidated catalog of human Ribo-seq ORFs.

In the 20 years since the completion of the Human Genome Project, cancer biology remains rooted in the assumption that the human genome encodes ~20,000 protein-coding genes. Yet, I and others have shown that thousands of “non-canonical” open reading frames (ncORFs) populate the human genome, potentially representing a dramatic expansion of the cancer proteome. Despite their abundance, little is known about the role of ncORFs as cancer driver genes. We developed functional genomics approaches to pursue this question across human cancers. To determine whether ncORFs represent biologically active proteins, we experimentally interrogated 553 candidates selected from ncORF datasets. Of these, 257 (46%) showed evidence of stable protein expression using multiple assays, and 401 (72%) induced gene expression changes when expressed in cancer cell lines. The bioactivity of ncORFs was dependent on their ability to translate a protein: mutation of the ORF start codon prevented induction of gene expression changes observed with the wild type ncORF in 48 of 51 (94%) cases. Using custom CRISPR/Cas9 knock-out screens targeting >2,000 ncORFs in 20 cancer cell lines, we found that genomic knock-out of approximately 10% of ncORFs induced viability defects in cancer cells. We focused on two candidates for functional studies. In breast cancer, we described G029442 - renamed glycine-rich extracellular protein-1 (GREP1) - as a secreted protein that is highly expressed and prognostic for poor patient outcomes. Knock-out of GREP1 in 263 cancer cell lines showed preferential essentiality in breast cancer-derived lines. The secretome of GREP1-expressing cells has an increased abundance of the oncogenic cytokine GDF15, and GDF15 supplementation mitigated the growth-inhibitory effect of GREP1 knockout. In medulloblastoma, we found that MYC-driven medulloblastoma cells are enriched for bioactive upstream ORFs (uORFs) that are encoded within the 5’ untranslated regions of mRNAs. We validated the ASNSD1 uORF as a top genetic vulnerability in multiple models of medulloblastoma, and its overexpression is sufficient to increase neural stem cell proliferation. Mechanistically, ASNSD1 uORF promotes a MYC-associated cellular program and interacts with the multiprotein prefoldin complex, which is required for tumors to maintain post-transcriptional regulation. Our work supports a generalizable principle that ncORFs commonly encode biologically-active proteins in diverse malignancies. Ongoing investigation of ncORFs therefore represents a new frontier in cancer research with the potential to define the next generation of therapeutic target genes. Citation Format: John R. Prensner, Ian Yannuzzi, Karl Clauser, Karsten Krug, Oana Enache, Adam Brown, Amy Goodale, David E. Root, Pratiti Bandopadhayay, Todd Golub. Non-canonical proteins are cancer cell vulnerabilities in diverse malignancies [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 3624.

Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) is a common diagnosis in adult oncology, but is extremely rare in pediatrics, with few published reports and none in the era of molecular profiling. Here, we describe a 13-year old boy with metastatic adenocarcinoma of unknown primary that was refractory to conventional chemotherapy. Molecular profiling revealed an activating ERBB2 D769Y variant. He subsequently achieved disease control on a lapatinib-containing regimen, and upon progression, he transiently responded to neratinib prior to dying from disease. Our case reports a rare example of pediatric CUP and highlights the utility of molecular profiling in these cases.

Systemic therapy for pediatric desmoid tumors has been challenged by a lack of high-quality clinical evidence and potential adverse effects. The gamma-secretase inhibitor nirogacestat has shown promising efficacy in adults. We report four cases of pediatric and young adult desmoid tumor patients (three with familial adenomatous polyposis [FAP] syndrome) who received nirogacestat on compassionate use. After a median of 13.5 months (range 6-18), three had durable benefit: a complete response (Case 1); a partial response (Case 2); stable disease (Case 3). The fourth had disease progression after a partial response. No patient experienced grade 3 or 4 adverse events.

A key question in genome research is whether biologically active proteins are restricted to the ∼20,000 canonical, well-annotated genes, or rather extend to the many non-canonical open reading frames (ORFs) predicted by genomic analyses. To address this, we experimentally interrogated 553 ORFs nominated in ribosome profiling datasets. Of these 553 ORFs, 57 (10%) induced a viability defect when the endogenous ORF was knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9 in 8 human cancer cell lines, 257 (46%) showed evidence of protein translation when ectopically expressed in HEK293T cells, and 401 (73%) induced gene expression changes measured by transcriptional profiling following ectopic expression across 4 cell types. CRISPR tiling and start codon mutagenesis indicated that the biological effects of these non-canonical ORFs required their translation as opposed to RNA-mediated effects. We selected one of these ORFs,G029442--renamedGREP1(Glycine-Rich Extracellular Protein-1)--for further characterization. We found thatGREP1encodes a secreted protein highly expressed in breast cancer, and its knock-out in 263 cancer cell lines showed preferential essentiality in breast cancer derived lines. Analysis of the secretome of GREP1-expressing cells showed increased abundance of the oncogenic cytokine GDF15, and GDF15 supplementation mitigated the growth inhibitory effect ofGREP1knock-out. Taken together, these experiments suggest that the non-canonical ORFeome is surprisingly rich in biologically active proteins and potential cancer therapeutic targets deserving of further study.

Purpose Brain tumors have become the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in young patients. Novel effective therapies on the basis of the unique biology of each tumor are urgently needed. The goal of this study was to evaluate the feasibility, utility, and clinical impact of integrative clinical sequencing and genetic counseling in children and young adults with high-risk brain tumors. Patients and Methods Fifty-two children and young adults with brain tumors designated by the treating neuro-oncologist to be high risk (> 25% chance for treatment failure; mean age, 10.2 years; range, 0 to 39 years) were enrolled in a prospective, observational, consecutive case series, in which participants underwent integrative clinical exome (tumor and germline DNA) and transcriptome (tumor RNA) sequencing and genetic counseling. Results were discussed in a multi-institutional brain tumor precision medicine teleconference. Results Sequencing revealed a potentially actionable germline or tumor alteration in 25 (63%) of 40 tumors with adequate tissue, of which 21 (53%) resulted in an impact on treatment or change of diagnosis. Platelet-derived growth factor receptor or fibroblast growth factor receptor pathway alterations were seen in nine of 20 (45%) glial tumors. Eight (20%) sequenced tumors harbored an oncogenic fusion isolated on RNA sequencing. Seventeen of 20 patients (85%) with glial tumors were found to have a potentially actionable result, which resulted in change of therapy in 14 (70%) patients. Patients with recurrent brain tumors receiving targeted therapy had a median progression-free survival (from time on therapy) of 4 months. Conclusion Selection of personalized agents for children and young adults with high-risk brain tumors on the basis of integrative clinical sequencing is feasible and resulted in a change in therapy in more than two thirds of children and young adults with high-risk glial tumors.

Background Menorrhagia is a common gynecologic complaint among adolescents, which rarely is secondary to malignancy. Burkitt lymphoma can mimic gynecologic malignancy, however it is rarely seen in adolescents. Burkitt lymphoma of the gynecologic tract requires early diagnosis and intervention for optimal outcomes. Case We report a case of a 15-year-old adolescent who had multiple admissions for menorrhagia that was thought to be secondary to anovulatory bleeding until pelvic ultrasound revealed a large 8-cm vaginal/cervical mass. Histologic examination of the biopsy specimen revealed Burkitt lymphoma, which was treated with chemotherapy leading to resolution of her menorrhagia. Summary and Conclusion Burkitt lymphoma presenting as a vaginal/cervical mass is exceedingly rare, especially in the adolescent patient. Burkitt lymphoma is generally highly responsive to chemotherapy, and symptoms rapidly improve after initiation of treatment.

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDGs) are clinically heterogeneous disorders defined by a decreased ability to modify biomolecules with oligosaccharides. Critical disruptions in protein recognition, interaction, binding, and anchoring lead to broad physiological effects. Patients present with endocrinopathy, immunodeficiency, hepatopathy, coagulopathy, and neurodevelopmental impairment. Patients may experience mortality/morbidity associated with shock physiology that is frequently culture negative and poorly responsive to standard care. Oedema, pleural and pericardial effusions, ascites, proteinuria, and protein-losing enteropathy are observed with an exaggerated inflammatory response. The negative serum protein steady state results from several mechanisms including reduced hepatic synthesis and secretion, increased consumption, and extravasation. Disruption of the glycocalyx, a layer of glycosylated proteins that lines the endothelium preventing thrombosis and extravasation, is a suspected cause of endothelial dysfunction in CDG patients. We performed a retrospective review of CDG patients admitted to our institution with acute illness over the past 2 years. Longitudinal clinical and laboratory data collected during the sick and well states were assessed for biomarkers of inflammation and efficacy of interventions. Six patients representing 4 CDG subtypes and 14 hospitalisations were identified. Acute D-dimer elevation, proteinuria, decreased serum total protein levels, coagulation proteins, and albumin were observed with acute illness. Infusion of fresh frozen plasma, and in some cases protein C concentrate, was associated with clinical and biomarker improvement. This was notable with intra-patient comparison of treated vs untreated courses. Use of endothelial barrier support therapy may reduce endothelial permeability by restoring both regulatory serum protein homeostasis and supporting the glycocalyx and is likely a critical component of care for this population.

Protein translation is both a fundamental cellular process essential for life as well as an oncogenic mechanism employed by tumors to enact cancer cell biology. While protein translation is most readily manifest in the ~20,000 known human protein coding genes, there are, in fact, several thousand additional regions of the cancer genome that are translated and contribute the complexity of the molecular milieu of cancer. Here, we systematically addressed the question of whether such uncharacterized genomic regions encode truly biologically active proteins and applied these findings to pediatric brain tumors. We experimentally interrogated 553 candidates selected from non-canonical open reading frame (ORF) datasets. Of these, 57 induced viability defects when knocked out in a broad array of human cancer cell lines. Upon ectopic expression, 257 showed evidence of protein expression and 401 induced gene expression changes. CRISPR tiling and start codon mutagenesis indicated that their biological effects required translation as opposed to RNA-mediated effects. We characterized several of these in the context of pediatric brain tumors, where dense CRISPR tiling screens revealed unique functional relevance of dozens of non-canonical ORFs in pediatric brain cancer cell survival. We found that one of these ORFs, ASNSD1 uORF, encodes a well-folded protein whose translation is a selective genetic dependency distinct from the adjacent ASNSD1 annotated protein. In vitro molecular biology assays confirmed the MYC-amplified medulloblastoma cell lines had a heightened dependency on this protein, and that MYC binds to the promoter of this gene, with MYC expression correlating with ASNSD1 in patient tumors. Co-immunoprecipitation assays defined ASNSD1 uORF as a novel member of the prefoldin complex of cytoplasmic protein stability regulators. Overall, our experiments suggest that the abundant protein translation found in the “non-coding” genome may produce biologically active non-canonical ORFs that are potential therapeutic targets.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) represent an attractive class of candidates to mediate cancer risk. Through integrative analysis of the lncRNA transcriptome with genomic data and SNP data from prostate cancer genome-wide association studies (GWAS), we identified 45 candidate lncRNAs associated with risk to prostate cancer. We further evaluated the mechanism underlying the top hit, PCAT1, and found that a risk-associated variant at rs7463708 increases binding of ONECUT2, a novel androgen receptor (AR)-interacting transcription factor, at a distal enhancer that loops to the PCAT1 promoter, resulting in upregulation of PCAT1 upon prolonged androgen treatment. In addition, PCAT1 interacts with AR and LSD1 and is required for their recruitment to the enhancers of GNMT and DHCR24, two androgen late-response genes implicated in prostate cancer development and progression. PCAT1 promotes prostate cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. These findings suggest that modulating lncRNA expression is an important mechanism for risk-associated SNPs in promoting prostate transformation.

The brain is the foremost non-gonadal tissue for expression of non-coding RNAs of unclear function. Yet, whether such transcripts are truly non-coding or rather the source of non-canonical protein translation is unknown. Here, we used functional genomic screens to establish the cellular bioactivity of non-canonical proteins located in putative non-coding RNAs or untranslated regions of protein-coding genes. We experimentally interrogated 553 open reading frames (ORFs) identified by ribosome profiling for three major phenotypes: 257 (46%) demonstrated protein translation when ectopically expressed in HEK293T cells, 401 (73%) induced gene expression changes following ectopic expression across 4 cancer cell types, and 57 (10%) induced a viability defect when the endogenous ORF was knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9 in 8 human cancer cell lines. CRISPR tiling and start codon mutagenesis indicated that the biological impact of these non-canonical ORFs required their translation as opposed to RNA-mediated effects. We functionally characterized one of these ORFs, G029442—renamed GREP1 (Glycine-Rich Extracellular Protein-1)—as a cancer-implicated gene with high expression in multiple cancer types, such as gliomas. GREP1 knockout in >200 cancer cell lines reduced cell viability in multiple cancer types, including glioblastoma, in a cell-autonomous manner and produced cell cycle arrest via single-cell RNA sequencing. Analysis of the secretome of GREP1-expressing cells showed increased abundance of the oncogenic cytokine GDF15, and GDF15 supplementation mitigated the growth inhibitory effect of GREP1 knock-out. Taken together, these experiments suggest that the non-canonical ORFeome is surprisingly rich in biologically active proteins and potential cancer therapeutic targets deserving of further study.

Resistance to androgen deprivation therapies and increased androgen receptor (AR) activity are major drivers of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although prior work has focused on targeting AR directly, co-activators of AR signaling, which may represent new therapeutic targets, are relatively underexplored. Here we demonstrate that the mixed-lineage leukemia protein (MLL) complex, a well-known driver of MLL fusion-positive leukemia, acts as a co-activator of AR signaling. AR directly interacts with the MLL complex via the menin-MLL subunit. Menin expression is higher in CRPC than in both hormone-naive prostate cancer and benign prostate tissue, and high menin expression correlates with poor overall survival of individuals diagnosed with prostate cancer. Treatment with a small-molecule inhibitor of menin-MLL interaction blocks AR signaling and inhibits the growth of castration-resistant tumors in vivo in mice. Taken together, this work identifies the MLL complex as a crucial co-activator of AR and a potential therapeutic target in advanced prostate cancer.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are emerging as important regulators of tissue physiology and disease processes including cancer. In order to delineate genome-wide lncRNA expression, we curated 7,256 RNA-Seq libraries from tumors, normal tissues, and cell lines comprising over 43 terabases of sequence from 25 independent studies. We applied ab initio assembly methodology to this dataset, yielding a consensus human transcriptome of 91,013 expressed genes. Over 68% (58,648) of genes were classified as lncRNAs, of which 79% (48,952) were previously unannotated. About 1% (597) of the lncRNAs harbored ultraconserved elements and 7% (3,900) overlapped disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). To prioritize lineage-specific, disease-associated lncRNA expression we employed non-parametric differential expression testing and nominated 7,942 lineage- or cancer-associated lncRNA genes. The lncRNA landscape characterized here may shed light into normal biology and cancer pathogenesis, and be valuable for future biomarker development.

Brain tumors have become the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in young patients. The role of routine sequencing in younger patients with brain tumors is not fully established, and it remains unclear which patient patients will benefit most from the integration of germline/tumor sequencing into routine pediatric neuro-oncology care. The goal of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and utility of DNA and RNA sequencing of children and adolescents with high-risk brain tumors, as well as to document the clinical utility of targeted therapies. Fifty-two children and young adults with brain tumors designated by treating neuro-oncologist to be high risk enrolled in a prospective, observational, consecutive case-series, in which participants underwent integrative clinical exome (tumor and germline DNA) and transcriptome (tumor RNA) sequencing and genetic counseling. Results were discussed in a multi-institutional brain tumor precision medicine teleconference using a platform (“CNS TAP”) to score targeted agents by their pre-clinical, clinical and pharmacologic properties in the selection of targeted therapies for brain tumors. Sequencing revealed a potentially actionable germline or tumor alterations in 25 (63%) of 40 tumors with adequate tissue, of which 21 (53%) resulted in an impact on treatment or change of diagnosis. Eight (20%) of sequenced tumors harbored an oncogenic fusion isolated on RNA sequencing. Seventeen of 20 patients (85%) with glial tumors were found to have a potentially actionable result, which resulted in change of therapy in 14 (70%) patients. Six (15%) patients who underwent therapy changes had potential clinical benefit (partial response or stable disease greater than 6 months on therapy). Selection of personalized agents for children and young adults with high risk brain tumors based on integrative clinical sequencing is feasible and resulted in a change in therapy in over two-thirds of children and young adults with high-risk glial tumors.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) represent an emerging layer of cancer biology, contributing to tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. Here, we describe a role for the oncogenic lncRNA PCAT-1 in prostate cancer proliferation through cMyc. We find that PCAT-1–mediated proliferation is dependent on cMyc protein stabilization, and using expression profiling, we observed that cMyc is required for a subset of PCAT-1–induced expression changes. The PCAT-1–cMyc relationship is mediated through the post-transcriptional activity of the MYC 3′ untranslated region, and we characterize a role for PCAT-1 in the disruption of MYC-targeting microRNAs. To further elucidate a role for post-transcriptional regulation, we demonstrate that targeting PCAT-1 with miR-3667-3p, which does not target MYC, is able to reverse the stabilization of cMyc by PCAT-1. This work establishes a basis for the oncogenic role of PCAT-1 in cancer cell proliferation and is the first study to implicate lncRNAs in the regulation of cMyc in prostate cancer.

Long noncoding RNAs (IncRNAs) are increasingly implicated in cancer biology, contributing to essential cancer cell functions such as proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. In prostate cancer, several lncRNAs have been nominated as critical actors in disease pathogenesis. Among these, expression of PCGEM1 and PRNCR1 has been identified as a possible component in disease progression through the coordination of androgen receptor (AR) signaling (Yang et al., Nature 2013, see ref. [1]). However, concerns regarding the robustness of these findings have been suggested. Here, we sought to evaluate whether PCGEM1 and PRNCR1 are associated with prostate cancer. Through a comprehensive analysis of RNA-sequencing data (RNA-seq), we find evidence that PCGEM1 but not PRNCR1 is associated with prostate cancer. We employ a large cohort of >230 high-risk prostate cancer patients with long-term outcomes data to show that, in contrast to prior reports, neither gene is associated with poor patient outcomes. We further observe no evidence that PCGEM1 nor PRNCR1 interact with AR, and neither gene is a component of AR signaling. Thus, we conclusively demonstrate that PCGEM1 and PRNCR1 are not prognostic lncRNAs in prostate cancer and we refute suggestions that these lncRNAs interact in AR signaling.

Introduction: Numerous transcripts annotated as long noncoding RNAs play a central role in cancer biology. For many, their noncoding status is merely a presumption. Genome-wide sequencing of ribosomal footprints has nominated thousands of unstudied open reading frames (ORFs) within lncRNAs, representing an expansion of the proteome. Here, we investigate previously unstudied proteins in cancer cell biology. Methods: Ribosome profiling data was analyzed with RibORF. 96 hours after infection with lentivirus for selected ORFs, L1000 expression profiling was performed on 4 cell lines. A CRISPR library was screened across 8 cells lines with sgRNA sequencing on days 0, 7 and 21 post-infection. Results: We analyzed ribosomal profiling data for 14 cell lines (~320 million sequencing reads). We nominated 28530 non-canonical ORFs within annotated protein-coding genes, 6697 ORFs in annotated lncRNAs, and 1252 ORFs in pseudogenes. For further study, we selected 553 candidate ORFs that exhibited compelling features, including DNA conservation, translational efficiency, protein domain, among others. We validated protein expression for 260 of 553 ORFs (47%): 89 (16%) had supporting peptides in deep-coverage proteomics datasets; 233 (42%) expressed protein after ectopic expression of individual V5-tagged cDNAs; 10 of 30 tested untagged ORFs expressed protein by biochemical in vitro translation. Ectopic overexpression followed by RNA profiling revealed 259 cDNAs that caused cellular transcriptional changes in at least one of four cancer cell lines (A549, HA1E, A375, MCF7). 137 of the 259 (49%) were validated proteins. As controls, we generated methionine-mutant constructs: 65 of 71 mutant cDNA experiments were unable to cause similar expression changes. We used a CRISPR library to identify novel ORF dependencies in 8 Cas9-derivatized cancer cell lines (MCF7, A549, A375, PC3, HEPG2, HELA, HA1E, HT29). For 42 ORFs, ≥ 2 targeting sgRNAs produced ≤ -1 log fold depletion in ≥ 1 cell lines. These ORFs were re-tested with a second sgRNA library. Next, we investigated compelling candidates more deeply with immunoprecipitation with mass spectrometry. For the cancer outlier transcript LINC01314, which encodes a highly conserved 59 amino acid protein harboring a cortexin domain (pfam domain cl12620), we found interactions with IMMT, SAMM50, and CHCHD3, members of a mitochondrial complex. Another example is LINC00116, which encodes a highly conserved 56 amino acid protein that binds the importin-nuclear pore complex. Conclusion: We establish a framework to discover, validate, and characterize unstudied proteins. About half of tested ORFs generated a detectable protein, and of these, half impacted cellular transcription. We discover novel gene dependencies, and are elucidating mechanisms for several ORFs. Together, our work is the first large-scale attempt to study the role of unannotated proteins in cancer cell biology. Citation Format: John R. Prensner, Oana Enache, Zhe Ji, Karsten Krug, Karl R. Clauser, Xiaoping Yang, Federica Piccioni, David E. Root, Todd R. Golub. Integrative functional proteogenomics for unannotated or uncharacterized proteins in cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 4344.

Prostate cancers remain indolent in the majority of individuals but behave aggressively in a minority. The molecular basis for this clinical heterogeneity remains incompletely understood. Here we characterize a long noncoding RNA termed SChLAP1 (second chromosome locus associated with prostate-1; also called LINC00913) that is overexpressed in a subset of prostate cancers. SChLAP1 levels independently predict poor outcomes, including metastasis and prostate cancer-specific mortality. In vitro and in vivo gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments indicate that SChLAP1 is critical for cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis. Mechanistically, SChLAP1 antagonizes the genome-wide localization and regulatory functions of the SWI/SNF chromatin-modifying complex. These results suggest that SChLAP1 contributes to the development of lethal cancer at least in part by antagonizing the tumor-suppressive functions of the SWI/SNF complex.

The maturation of genomic technologies has enabled new discoveries in disease pathogenesis as well as new approaches to patient care. In pediatric oncology, patients may now receive individualized genomic analysis to identify molecular aberrations of relevance for diagnosis and/or treatment. In this context, several recent clinical studies have begun to explore the feasibility and utility of genomics-driven precision medicine. Here, we review the major developments in this field, discuss current limitations, and explore aspects of the clinical implementation of precision medicine, which lack consensus. Lastly, we discuss ongoing scientific efforts in this arena, which may yield future clinical applications.

The microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT/tau) aberrantly accumulates in fifteen neurodegenerative diseases, termed tauopathies. One way to treat tauopathies may be to accelerate tau clearance, but the molecular mechanisms governing tau stability are not yet clear. We recently identified chemical probes that markedly accelerate the clearance of tau in cellular and animal models. In the current study, we used one of these probes in combination with immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry to identify 48 proteins whose association with tau changes during the first 10 minutes after treatment. These proteins included known modifiers of tau proteotoxicity, such as ILF-2 (NFAT), ILF-3, and ataxin-2. A striking observation from the dataset was that tau binding to heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) decreased while binding to Hsp90 significantly increased. Both chaperones have been linked to tau homeostasis, but their mechanisms have not been established. Using peptide arrays and binding assays, we found that Hsp70 and Hsp90 appeared to compete for binding to shared sites on tau. Further, the Hsp90-bound complex proved to be important in initiating tau clearance in cells. These results suggest that the relative levels of Hsp70 and Hsp90 may help determine whether tau is retained or degraded. Consistent with this model, analysis of reported microarray expression data from Alzheimer’s disease patients and age-matched controls showed that the levels of Hsp90 are reduced in the diseased hippocampus. These studies suggest that Hsp70 and Hsp90 work together to coordinate tau homeostasis.

Ewing's sarcoma family of tumors (ESFT) refers to aggressive malignancies which frequently harbor characteristic EWS-FLI1 or EWS-ERG genomic fusions. Here, we report that these fusion products interact with the DNA damage response protein and transcriptional coregulator PARP-1. ESFT cells, primary tumor xenografts, and tumor metastases were all highly sensitive to PARP1 inhibition. Addition of a PARP1 inhibitor to the second-line chemotherapeutic agent temozolamide resulted in complete responses of all treated tumors in an EWS-FLI1–driven mouse xenograft model of ESFT. Mechanistic investigations revealed that DNA damage induced by expression of EWS-FLI1 or EWS-ERG fusion genes was potentiated by PARP1 inhibition in ESFT cell lines. Notably, EWS-FLI1 fusion genes acted in a positive feedback loop to maintain the expression of PARP1, which was required for EWS-FLI–mediated transcription, thereby enforcing oncogene-dependent sensitivity to PARP-1 inhibition. Together, our findings offer a strong preclinical rationale to target the EWS-FLI1:PARP1 intersection as a therapeutic strategy to improve the treatment of ESFTs. Cancer Res; 72(7); 1608–13. ©2012 AACR.

Beginning with precursor lesions, aberrant DNA methylation marks the entire spectrum of prostate cancer progression. We mapped the global DNA methylation patterns in select prostate tissues and cell lines using MethylPlex–next-generation sequencing (M-NGS). Hidden Markov model–based next-generation sequence analysis identified ∼68,000 methylated regions per sample. While global CpG island (CGI) methylation was not differential between benign adjacent and cancer samples, overall promoter CGI methylation significantly increased from ∼12.6% in benign samples to 19.3% and 21.8% in localized and metastatic cancer tissues, respectively (P-value < 2 × 10−16). We found distinct patterns of promoter methylation around transcription start sites, where methylation occurred not only on the CGIs, but also on flanking regions and CGI sparse promoters. Among the 6691 methylated promoters in prostate tissues, 2481 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) are cancer-specific, including numerous novel DMRs. A novel cancer-specific DMR in the WFDC2 promoter showed frequent methylation in cancer (17/22 tissues, 6/6 cell lines), but not in the benign tissues (0/10) and normal PrEC cells. Integration of LNCaP DNA methylation and H3K4me3 data suggested an epigenetic mechanism for alternate transcription start site utilization, and these modifications segregated into distinct regions when present on the same promoter. Finally, we observed differences in repeat element methylation, particularly LINE-1, between ERG gene fusion-positive and -negative cancers, and we confirmed this observation using pyrosequencing on a tissue panel. This comprehensive methylome map will further our understanding of epigenetic regulation in prostate cancer progression.

Recurrent gene fusions involving oncogenic ETS transcription factors (including ERG, ETV1, and ETV4) have been identified in a large fraction of prostate cancers. The most common fusions contain the 5′ untranslated region of TMPRSS2 fused to ERG. Recently, we identified additional 5′ partners in ETV1 fusions, including TMPRSS2, SLC45A3, HERV-K_22q11.23, C15ORF21, and HNRPA2B1. Here, we identify ETV5 as the fourth ETS family member involved in recurrent gene rearrangements in prostate cancer. Characterization of two cases with ETV5 outlier expression by RNA ligase–mediated rapid amplification of cDNA ends identified one case with a TMPRSS2:ETV5 fusion and one case with a SLC45A3:ETV5 fusion. We confirmed the presence of these fusions by quantitative PCR and fluorescence in situ hybridization. In vitro recapitulation of ETV5 overexpression induced invasion in RWPE cells, a benign immortalized prostatic epithelial cell line. Expression profiling and an integrative molecular concepts analysis of RWPE-ETV5 cells also revealed the induction of an invasive transcriptional program, consistent with ERG and ETV1 overexpression in RWPE cells, emphasizing the functional redundancy of ETS rearrangements. Together, our results suggest that the family of 5′ partners previously identified in ETV1 gene fusions can fuse with other ETS family members, suggesting numerous rare gene fusion permutations in prostate cancer. [Cancer Res 2008;68(1):73–80]

Comprehensive knowledge of the genomic alterations that underlie cancer is a critical foundation for diagnostics, prognostics, and targeted therapeutics. Systematic efforts to analyze cancer genomes are underway, but the analysis is hampered by the lack of a statistical framework to distinguish meaningful events from random background aberrations. Here we describe a systematic method, called Genomic Identification of Significant Targets in Cancer (GISTIC), designed for analyzing chromosomal aberrations in cancer. We use it to study chromosomal aberrations in 141 gliomas and compare the results with two prior studies. Traditional methods highlight hundreds of altered regions with little concordance between studies. The new approach reveals a highly concordant picture involving ≈35 significant events, including 16–18 broad events near chromosome-arm size and 16–21 focal events. Approximately half of these events correspond to known cancer-related genes, only some of which have been previously tied to glioma. We also show that superimposed broad and focal events may have different biological consequences. Specifically, gliomas with broad amplification of chromosome 7 have properties different from those with overlapping focal EGFR amplification: the broad events act in part through effects on MET and its ligand HGF and correlate with MET dependence in vitro . Our results support the feasibility and utility of systematic characterization of the cancer genome.

Importance Cancer is caused by a diverse array of somatic and germline genomic aberrations. Advances in genomic sequencing technologies have improved the ability to detect these molecular aberrations with greater sensitivity. However, integrating them into clinical management in an individualized manner has proven challenging. Objective To evaluate the use of integrative clinical sequencing and genetic counseling in the assessment and treatment of children and young adults with cancer. Design, Setting, and Participants Single-site, observational, consecutive case series (May 2012-October 2014) involving 102 children and young adults (mean age, 10.6 years; median age, 11.5 years, range, 0-22 years) with relapsed, refractory, or rare cancer. Exposures Participants underwent integrative clinical exome (tumor and germline DNA) and transcriptome (tumor RNA) sequencing and genetic counseling. Results were discussed by a precision medicine tumor board, which made recommendations to families and their physicians. Main Outcomes and Measures Proportion of patients with potentially actionable findings, results of clinical actions based on integrative clinical sequencing, and estimated proportion of patients or their families at risk of future cancer. Results Of the 104 screened patients, 102 enrolled with 91 (89%) having adequate tumor tissue to complete sequencing. Only the 91 patients were included in all calculations, including 28 (31%) with hematological malignancies and 63 (69%) with solid tumors. Forty-two patients (46%) had actionable findings that changed their cancer management: 15 of 28 (54%) with hematological malignancies and 27 of 63 (43%) with solid tumors. Individualized actions were taken in 23 of the 91 (25%) based on actionable integrative clinical sequencing findings, including change in treatment for 14 patients (15%) and genetic counseling for future risk for 9 patients (10%). Nine of 91 (10%) of the personalized clinical interventions resulted in ongoing partial clinical remission of 8 to 16 months or helped sustain complete clinical remission of 6 to 21 months. All 9 patients and families with actionable incidental genetic findings agreed to genetic counseling and screening. Conclusions and Relevance In this single-center case series involving young patients with relapsed or refractory cancer, incorporation of integrative clinical sequencing data into clinical management was feasible, revealed potentially actionable findings in 46% of patients, and was associated with change in treatment and family genetic counseling for a small proportion of patients. The lack of a control group limited assessing whether better clinical outcomes resulted from this approach than outcomes that would have occurred with standard care.

Large-scale transcriptome sequencing efforts have vastly expanded the catalog of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) with varying evolutionary conservation, lineage expression, and cancer specificity. Here, we functionally characterize a novel ultraconserved lncRNA, THOR (ENSG00000226856), which exhibits expression exclusively in testis and a broad range of human cancers. THOR knockdown and overexpression in multiple cell lines and animal models alters cell or tumor growth supporting an oncogenic role. We discovered a conserved interaction of THOR with IGF2BP1 and show that THOR contributes to the mRNA stabilization activities of IGF2BP1. Notably, transgenic THOR knockout produced fertilization defects in zebrafish and also conferred a resistance to melanoma onset. Likewise, ectopic expression of human THOR in zebrafish accelerated the onset of melanoma. THOR represents a novel class of functionally important cancer/testis lncRNAs whose structure and function have undergone positive evolutionary selection.

Recently characterized IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in leukemia and glioblastoma have introduced a fascinating cancer-specific role for metabolic genes essential to cellular respiration. Studies also link aberrant IDH1 and IDH2 activity to an altered metabolite profile, an observation that may have broad implications for both cancer epigenetics and clinical management of disease.

BackgroundImproved clinical predictors for disease progression are needed for localised prostate cancer, since only a subset of patients develop recurrent or refractory disease after first-line treatment. Therefore, we undertook an unbiased analysis to identify RNA biomarkers associated with metastatic progression after prostatectomy.MethodsProstate cancer samples from patients treated with radical prostatectomy at three academic institutions were analysed for gene expression by a high-density Affymetrix GeneChip platform, encompassing more than 1 million genomic loci. In a discovery cohort, all protein-coding genes and known long non-coding RNAs were ranked by fold change in expression between tumours that subsequently metastasised versus those that did not. The top ranked gene was then validated for its prognostic value for metastatic progression in three additional independent cohorts. 95% of the gene expression assays were done in a Clinical Laboratory Improvements Amendments certified laboratory facility. All genes were assessed for their ability to predict metastatic progression by receiver-operating-curve area-under-the-curve analyses. Multivariate analyses were done for the primary endpoint of metastatic progression, with variables including Gleason score, preoperative prostate-specific antigen concentration, seminal vesicle invasion, surgical margin status, extracapsular extension, lymph node invasion, and expression of the highest ranked gene.Findings1008 patients were included in the study: 545 in the discovery cohort and 463 in the validation cohorts. The long non-coding RNA SChLAP1 was identified as the highest-ranked overexpressed gene in cancers with metastatic progression. Validation in three independent cohorts confirmed the prognostic value of SChLAP1 for metastatic progression. On multivariate modelling, SChLAP1 expression (high vs low) independently predicted metastasis within 10 years (odds ratio [OR] 2·45, 95% CI 1·70-3·53; p