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Summary: RNA tomography or tomo-seq combines mRNA sequencing and cryo-sectioning to spatially resolve gene expression. We have adapted this method for the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to generate anteroposterior gene expression maps at near-cellular resolution. Here, we provide a detailed overview of the method and present two approaches: one that includes RNA isolation for maximum sensitivity and one that is suitable for partial automatization and is therefore less time-consuming.For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Ebbing et al. (2018).

Abstract Background Healthcare delivery is undergoing radical changes that influence effective infection prevention and control (IPC). Futures research (short: Futures), the science of deliberating on multiple potential future states, is increasingly employed in many core societal fields. Futures might also be helpful in IPC to facilitate current education and organisational decisions. Hence, we conducted an initial survey as part of the IPC Crystal Ball Initiative. Methods In 2019, international IPC experts were invited to answer a 10-item online questionnaire, including demographics, housekeeping, and open-ended core questions (Q) on the “status of IPC in 2030” (Q1), “people in charge of IPC” (Q2), “necessary skills in IPC” (Q3), and “burning research questions” (Q4). The four core questions were submitted to a three-step inductive and deductive qualitative content analysis. A subsequent cross-case matrix produced overarching leitmotifs. Q1 statements were additionally coded for sentiment analysis (positive, neutral, or negative). Results Overall, 18 of 44 (41%) invited experts responded (from 11 countries; 12 physicians, four nurses, one manager, one microbiologist; all of them in senior positions). The emerging leitmotifs were “System integration”, “Beyond the hospital”, “Behaviour change and implementation”, “Automation and digitalisation”, and “Anticipated scientific progress and innovation”. The statements reflected an optimistic outlook in 66% of all codes of Q1. Conclusions The first exercise of the IPC Crystal Ball Initiative reflected an optimistic outlook on IPC in 2030, and participants envisioned leveraging technological and medical progress to increase IPC effectiveness, freeing IPC personnel from administrative tasks to be more present at the point of care and increasing IPC integration and expansion through the application of a broad range of skills. Enhancing participant immersion in future Crystal Ball Initiative exercises through simulation would likely further increase the authenticity and comprehensiveness of the envisioned futures.

Background: Hospitals are increasingly consolidating into networks and integrating infection prevention (IP) into system infection prevention programs (SIPP). Very little has been published about these programs. This survey sheds light on the current state of SIPPs. Methods: We used the survey generator Alchemer.com for setting up the questionnaire, and tested a beta version among peers. The final version was sent out to SHEA Research Network participants in August 2023. Raw data was compiled and analyzed. Results: Forty institutions responded (40/104, 38%), of which 25 (63%) had SIPPs. These SIPPS reported health systems with a median of 4.5 acute care hospitals (range, 1-33); 16 SIPPS reported a median of 2 critical access hospitals (range, 1-8); 4 SIPPs reported 1-3 LTACHs, and 6 SIPPS reported a median of 1.5 nursing homes. All except 3 (88%) contained an academic center; 48% (11/23) of the U.S. based programs operate in multiple states. Four programs have been in place >20 years, four < 2 years, and the remainder a median of 8 years (range, 2-18). Physician directors also have clinical (20/25, 80%), teaching (19/25, 76%), research (15/25, 60%), antimicrobial stewardship (8/25, 32%), quality (8/25, 32%), and/or patient safety (5/25, 20%) roles. Seventeen (68%) report having a written job description. Nineteen (76%) report having an infection preventionist in a system IP director role; only 7/25 (28%) have a dedicated system IP team that operates independent of individual hospitals. Sixteen (64%) report administrative support, 10/25 (40%) have a data manager/analyst, and 4/25 (16%) include IT expert or programmer support. 15/25 (60%) report having done a formal system-wide IP needs assessment. While 16/25 (64%) have some automation in HAI surveillance (predominantly using Bugsy [Epic] or Theradoc [Premier]), while only 5/25 (20%) run fully automated surveillance. 10/25 (40%) have implemented centralized surveillance. 12/25 (48%) have “system IP policies” that are hierarchically above individual site policies. The biggest challenges appear to be gaps in 1) clear governing structure, 2) communication, 3) consistent staffing, 4) data management support, and 5) dedicated, empowered IP expert FTEs. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first U.S. survey to explore present-day system infection prevention. In this sample of hospital networks, we found heterogeneity in the structure, staffing and resources for system IP with significant opportunities for improvement. In this era of healthcare consolidation, our findings highlight the urgent need to more clearly delineate and support system IP needs in order to enhance their functionality.

Abstract Objective We aimed to evaluate the association between post-appendectomy SSI rates and the two most commonly used regimens for perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis in Swiss children. Methods We conducted a retrospective cohort study, analysing data from the Swiss national SSI surveillance database with a study period from 2014 to 2018. All hospitals undertaking paediatric appendectomies in Switzerland participate in the surveillance. We compared the cumulative incidence and odds of post-appendectomy SSI within 30 days of surgery in children ≤ 16 years of age undergoing appendectomy for uncomplicated appendicitis and receiving perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis with cefuroxime plus metronidazole or with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid using multivariable adjusted logistic regression and propensity-score matching. Results A total of 6207 cases were recorded in the study time frame. Overall SSI cumulative incidence was 1.9% (n = 119). 4256 children (54.9% male, median (IQR) age 12 [10, 14] years) received either cefuroxime plus metronidazole (n = 2348, 53.8% male) or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (n = 1491, 57.0% male). SSI cumulative incidence was 1.1% (25/2348) among children receiving cefuroxime plus metronidazole and 2.8% (42/1491, p

Abstract Objective To compare intravenous (IV) amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (A/CA) to IV cefuroxime plus metronidazole (C + M) for preventing surgical site infections (SSI) in colorectal surgery. Background Given their spectra that include most Enterobacterales and anaerobes, C + M is commonly recommended as prophylaxis of SSI in colorectal surgery. A/CA offers good coverage of Enterobacterales and anaerobes as well, but, in contrast to C + M, it also includes Enterococcus faecalis which is also isolated from patients with SSI and could trigger anastomotic leakage. Methods Data from a Swiss SSI surveillance program were used to compare SSI rates after class II (clean contaminated) colorectal surgery between patients who received C + M and those who received A/CA. We employed multivariable logistic regression to adjust for potential confounders, along with propensity score matching to adjust for group imbalance. Results From 2009 to 2018, 27,922 patients from 127 hospitals were included. SSI was diagnosed in 3132 (11.2%): 278/1835 (15.1%) in those who received A/CA and 2854/26,087 (10.9%) in those who received C + M (p 2, a longer duration of operation, and a reoperation for a non-infectious complication. Protective factors were female sex, older age, antibiotic prophylaxis received 60 to 30 min before surgery, elective operation, and endoscopic approach. Conclusions Despite its activity against enterococci, A/CA was less effective than C + M for preventing SSI, suggesting that it should not be a first choice antibiotic prophylaxis for colorectal surgery.

Abstract Background Patients with neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD) often rely on some type of catheterization for bladder emptying. Intermittent catheterization (IC) is considered the gold standard and is preferred over continuous catheterization, since it is considered to cause fewer urinary tract infections (UTIs) than indwelling catheterization. The main objective of our study was to describe UTI prevalence (at visit) and incidence (within the last 12 months) and urine culture characteristics between patients using an indwelling catheter versus (vs) those performing IC. Methods In this cross-sectional study, we prospectively evaluated from 02/2020 to 01/2021 patients with NLUTD undergoing urine cultures for prophylactic reasons or due to UTI symptoms. At visit, all patients underwent a standardized interview on current UTI symptoms as well as UTI history and antibiotic consumption within the past year. Patients using an indwelling catheter (n = 206) or IC (n = 299) were included in the analysis. The main outcome was between-group differences regarding UTI characteristics. Results Patients using an indwelling catheter were older (indwelling catheter vs IC: median 66 (Q1-Q3: 55—77) vs 55 (42—67) years of age) and showed a higher Charlson comorbidity index (indwelling catheter vs IC: median 4 (Q1-Q3: 2–6) vs 2 (1–4) (both p

Abstract The rapid detection and species-level differentiation of bacterial pathogens facilitates antibiotic stewardship and improves disease management. Here, we develop a rapid bacteriophage-based diagnostic assay to detect the most prevalent pathogens causing urinary tract infections: Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp., and Klebsiella spp. For each uropathogen, two virulent phages were genetically engineered to express a nanoluciferase reporter gene upon host infection. Using 206 patient urine samples, reporter phage-induced bioluminescence was quantified to identify bacteriuria and the assay was benchmarked against conventional urinalysis. Overall, E. coli, Enterococcus spp., and Klebsiella spp. were each detected with high sensitivity (68%, 78%, 87%), specificity (99%, 99%, 99%), and accuracy (90%, 94%, 98%) at a resolution of ≥103 CFU/ml within 5 h. We further demonstrate how bioluminescence in urine can be used to predict phage antibacterial activity, demonstrating the future potential of reporter phages as companion diagnostics that guide patient-phage matching prior to therapeutic phage application.

Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the association between surgical site infections (SSIs), a major source of patient harm, and safety and teamwork climate. Prior research has been unclear regarding this relationship.Design Based on the Swiss national SSI surveillance and a survey study assessing (a) safety climate and (b) teamwork climate, associations were analysed for three kinds of surgical procedures.Setting and participants SSI surveillance data from 20 434 surgeries for hip and knee arthroplasty from 41 hospitals, 8321 for colorectal procedures from 28 hospitals and 4346 caesarean sections from 11 hospitals and survey responses from Swiss operating room personnel (N=2769) in 54 acute care hospitals.Primary and secondary outcomes The primary endpoint of the study was the 30-day (all types) or 1-year (knee/hip with implants) National Healthcare Safety Network-adjusted SSI rate. Its association with climate level and strength was investigated in regression analyses, accounting for respondents’ professional background, managerial role and hospital size as confounding factors.Results Plotting climate levels against infection rates revealed a general trend with SSI rate decreasing as the safety climate increased, but none of the associations were significant (5% level). Linear models for hip and knee arthroplasties showed a negative association between SSI rate and climate perception (p=0.02). For climate strength, there were no consistent patterns, indicating that alignment of perceptions was not associated with lower infection rates. Being in a managerial role and being a physician (vs a nurse) had a positive effect on climate levels regarding SSI in hip and knee arthroplasties, whereas larger hospital size had a negative effect.Conclusions This study suggests a possible negative correlation between climate level and SSI rate, while for climate strength, no associations were found. Future research should study safety climate more specifically related to infection prevention measures to establish clearer links.

Abstract Background Future prevalence of colonization with extended-spectrum betalactamase (ESBL-) producing K. pneumoniae in humans and the potential of public health interventions against the spread of these resistant bacteria remain uncertain. Methods Based on antimicrobial consumption and susceptibility data recorded during > 13 years in a Swiss region, we developed a mathematical model to assess the comparative effect of different interventions on the prevalence of colonization. Results Simulated prevalence stabilized in the near future when rates of antimicrobial consumption and in-hospital transmission were assumed to remain stable (2025 prevalence: 6.8% (95CI%:5.4–8.8%) in hospitals, 3.5% (2.5–5.0%) in the community versus 6.1% (5.0–7.5%) and 3.2% (2.3–4.2%) in 2019, respectively). When overall antimicrobial consumption was set to decrease by 50%, 2025 prevalence declined by 75% in hospitals and by 64% in the community. A 50% decline in in-hospital transmission rate led to a reduction in 2025 prevalence of 31% in hospitals and no reduction in the community. The best model fit estimated that 49% (6–100%) of observed colonizations could be attributable to sources other than human-to-human transmission within the geographical setting. Conclusions Projections suggests that overall antimicrobial consumption will be, by far, the most powerful driver of prevalence and that a large fraction of colonizations could be attributed to non-local transmissions.

When infecting humans, Andes orthohantavirus (ANDV) may cause a severe disease called hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS). Following non-specific symptoms, the infection may progress to a syndrome of hemorrhagic fever combined with hyper-acute cardiopulmonary failure. The case fatality rate ranges between 25–40%, depending on the outbreak. In this study, we present the follow-up of a male patient who recovered from HCPS six years ago. We demonstrate that the ANDV genome persists within the reproductive tract for at least 71 months. Genome sequence analysis early and late after infection reveals a low number of mutations (two single nucleotide variants and one deletion), suggesting limited replication activity. We can exclude the integration of the viral genome into the host genome, since the treatment of the specimen with RNAse led to a loss of signal. We demonstrate a long-lasting, strong neutralizing antibody response using pseudovirions expressing the ANDV glycoprotein. Taken together, our results show that ANDV has the potential for sexual transmission.

Abstract Background Agrobacterium spp. are infrequent agents of bloodstream infections linked to healthcare-associated outbreaks. However, it is unclear if outbreaks also occur across larger geographic areas. Triggered by two local clusters from putative point sources, our aim was to detect potential additional clusters in Switzerland. Methods We performed a nationwide descriptive study of cases in Switzerland based on a prospective surveillance system (Swiss Centre for Antibiotic Resistance, anresis.ch), from 2008 to 2019. We identified patients with Agrobacterium spp. isolated from blood cultures and used a survey to collect clinical-epidemiological information and susceptibility testing results. We performed whole genome sequencing (WGS) of available clinical isolates and determined their relatedness by single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variant calling analysis. Results We identified a total of 36 cases of Agrobacterium spp. from blood samples over 10 years. Beyond previously known local clusters, no new ones were identified. WGS-based typing was performed on 22 available isolates and showed no clonal relationships between newly identified isolates or to those from the known clusters, with all isolates outside these clusters being at least 50 SNPs apart. Conclusion and relevance Agrobacterium spp. bacteraemia is infrequently detected and, given that it may be healthcare-associated and stem from a point source, occurrence of multiple episodes should entail an outbreak investigation. With the help of the national antimicrobial resistance surveillance system we identified multiple clinical cases of this rare pathogen but found no evidence by WGS that suggested a nation-wide outbreak. Graphical abstract

Abstract Background The guideline-driven and widely implemented single room isolation strategy for respiratory viral infections (RVI) such as influenza or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) can lead to a shortage of available hospital beds. We discuss our experience with the introduction of droplet precautions on-site (DroPS) as a possible alternative. Methods During the 2018/19 influenza season we introduced DroPS on several wards of a single tertiary care center, while other wards maintained the traditional single room isolation strategy. On a daily basis, we evaluated patients for the development of respiratory symptoms and screened those with a clinical diagnosis of hospital-acquired respiratory viral infection (HARVI) for influenza/RSV by molecular rapid test. If negative, it was followed by a multiplex respiratory virus PCR. We report the concept of DroPS, the feasibility of the strategy and the rate of microbiologically confirmed HARVI with influenza or RSV infection on the DroPS wards compared to wards using the traditional single room isolation strategy. Results We evaluated all hospitalised patients at risk for a HARVI, 741 (72%) on the DroPS wards and 293 (28%) on the regular wards. The hospital-acquired infection rate with influenza or RSV was 2/741 (0.3%; 1× influenza A, 1× RSV) on the DroPS wards and 2/293 (0.7%; 2× influenza A) on the regular wards. Conclusions Droplet precautions on-site (DroPS) may be a simple and potentially resource-saving alternative to the standard single room isolation strategy for respiratory viral infections. Further studies in a larger clinical context are needed to document its safety.

This survey of infectious disease providers on long COVID care revealed a lack of familiarity with existing resources, a sentiment of missing guidelines, and scarcity of dedicated care centers. The low response rate suggests that infectious disease specialists do not consider themselves as the primary providers of long COVID care.

Abstract Objective: To determine the relationship between severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), and mortality. Design: Retrospective cohort. Setting: Three St. Louis, MO hospitals. Patients: Adults admitted ≥48 hours from January 1, 2017 to August 31, 2020. Methods: Hospital-acquired infections were defined as those occurring ≥48 hours after admission and were based on positive urine, respiratory, and blood cultures. Poisson interrupted time series compared mortality trajectory before (beginning January 1, 2017) and during the first 6 months of the pandemic. Multivariable logistic regression models were fitted to identify risk factors for mortality in patients with an HAI before and during the pandemic. A time-to-event analysis considered time to death and discharge by fitting Cox proportional hazards models. Results: Among 6,447 admissions with subsequent HAIs, patients were predominantly White (67.9%), with more females (50.9% vs 46.1%, P = .02), having slightly lower body mass index (28 vs 29, P = .001), and more having private insurance (50.6% vs 45.7%, P = .01) in the pre-pandemic period. In the pre-pandemic era, there were 1,000 (17.6%) patient deaths, whereas there were 160 deaths (21.3%, P = .01) during the pandemic. A total of 53 (42.1%) coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients died having an HAI. Age and comorbidities increased the risk of death in patients with COVID-19 and an HAI. During the pandemic, Black patients with an HAI and COVID-19 were more likely to die than White patients with an HAI and COVID-19. Conclusions: In three Midwestern hospitals, patients with concurrent HAIs and COVID-19 were more likely to die if they were Black, elderly, and had certain chronic comorbidities.

Abstract Objective: To investigate clinically relevant microbiological characteristics of uropathogens and to compare patients with catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) to those with non-CAUTIs. Methods: All urine cultures from the calendar year 2019 of the Swiss Centre for Antibiotic Resistance database were analyzed. Group differences in the proportions of bacterial species and antibiotic-resistant isolates from CAUTI and non-CAUTI samples were investigated. Results: Data from 27,158 urine cultures met the inclusion criteria. Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus mirabilis together represented 70% and 85% of pathogens identified in CAUTI and non-CAUTI samples, respectively. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was significantly more often detected in CAUTI samples. The overall resistance rate for the empirically often-prescribed antibiotics ciprofloxacin (CIP), norfloxacin (NOR), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) was between 13% and 31%. Except for nitrofurantoin, E. coli from CAUTI samples were more often resistant (P ≤ .048) to all classes of antibiotics analyzed, including third-generation cephalosporines used as surrogate for extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL). Significanty higher resistance proportions in CAUTI samples versus non-CAUTI samples were observed for CIP (P = .001) and NOR (P = .033) in K. pneumoniae, for NOR (P = .011) in P. mirabilis, and for cefepime (P = .015), and piperacillin-tazobactam (P = .043) in P. aeruginosa. Conclusion: CAUTI pathogens were more often resistant to recommended empirical antibiotics than non-CAUTI pathogens. This finding emphasizes the need for urine sampling for culturing before initiating therapy for CAUTI and the importance of considering therapeutic alternatives.

Abstract Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a frequent complication of mechanical ventilation and is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Accurate diagnosis of VAP relies in part on subjective diagnostic criteria. Surveillance according to ventilator-associated event (VAE) criteria may allow quick and objective benchmarking. Our objective was to create an automated surveillance tool for VAE tiers I and II on a large data collection, evaluate its diagnostic accuracy and retrospectively determine the yearly baseline VAE incidence. We included all consecutive intensive care unit admissions of patients with mechanical ventilation at Bern University Hospital, a tertiary referral center, from January 2008 to July 2016. Data was automatically extracted from the patient data management system and automatically processed. We created and implemented an application able to automatically analyze respiratory and relevant medication data according to the Centers for Disease Control protocol for VAE-surveillance. In a subset of patients, we compared the accuracy of automated VAE surveillance according to CDC criteria to a gold standard (a composite of automated and manual evaluation with mediation for discrepancies) and evaluated the evolution of the baseline incidence. The study included 22′442 ventilated admissions with a total of 37′221 ventilator days. 592 ventilator-associated events (tier I) occurred; of these 194 (34%) were of potentially infectious origin (tier II). In our validation sample, automated surveillance had a sensitivity of 98% and specificity of 100% in detecting VAE compared to the gold standard. The yearly VAE incidence rate ranged from 10.1–22.1 per 1000 device days and trend showed a decrease in the yearly incidence rate ratio of 0.96 (95% CI, 0.93–1.00, p = 0.03). This study demonstrated that automated VAE detection is feasible, accurate and reliable and may be applied on a large, retrospective sample and provided insight into long-term institutional VAE incidences. The surveillance tool can be extended to other centres and provides VAE incidences for performing quality control and intervention studies.

Abstract Background Evidence about the impact of the pandemic of COVID-19 on the incidence rates of blood cultures contaminations and bloodstream infections in intensive care units (ICUs) remains scant. The objective of this study was to investigate the nationwide epidemiology of positive blood cultures drawn in ICUs during the first two pandemic waves of COVID-19 in Switzerland. Methods We analyzed data on positive blood cultures among ICU patients, prospectively collected through a nationwide surveillance system (ANRESIS), from March 30, 2020, to May 31, 2021, a 14-month timeframe that included a first wave of COVID-19, which affected the French and Italian-speaking regions, an interim period (summer 2020) and a second wave that affected the entire country. We used the number of ICU patient-days provided by the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health as denominator to calculate incidence rates of blood culture contaminations and bloodstream infections (ICU-BSI). Incidence rate ratios comparing the interim period with the second wave were determined by segmented Poisson regression models. Results A total of 1099 blood culture contaminations and 1616 ICU-BSIs were identified in 52 ICUs during the study. Overall, more episodes of blood culture contaminations and ICU-BSI were observed during the pandemic waves, compared to the interim period. The proportions of blood culture contaminations and ICU-BSI were positively associated with the ICU occupancy rate, which was higher during the COVID-19 waves. During the more representative second wave (versus interim period), we observed an increased incidence of blood culture contaminations (IRR 1.57, 95% CI 1.16–2.12) and ICU-BSI (IRR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03–1.39). Conclusions An increase in blood culture contaminations and ICU-BSIs was observed during the second COVID-19 pandemic wave, especially in months when the ICU burden of COVID-19 patients was high.

Abstract Changing microorganism distributions and decreasing antibiotic susceptibility over the duration of hospitalization have been described for the colonization or infection of selected organ systems. Few data are available on bacteremias in the intensive care unit (ICU) setting. We conducted a nationwide study on bloodstream infection (BSI) using data from the Swiss Centre for Antibiotic Resistance (ANRESIS). We analyzed data on BSI detected in the ICU from hospitals that sent information on a regular basis during the entire study period (2008–2017). We described specific trends of pathogen distribution and resistance during hospitalization duration. We included 6505 ICU- BSI isolates from 35 Swiss hospitals. We observed 2587 possible skin contaminants, 3788 bacteremias and 130 fungemias. The most common microorganism was Escherichia coli (23.2%, 910), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (18.7%, 734) and enterococci (13.1%, 515). Enterococcus spp (p

Summary: Background: The optimal screening strategy in hospitals to identify secondary cases after contact with a meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) index patient in a low prevalence setting is not well defined. We aimed at identifying factors associated with documented MRSA transmissions. Method: Single center, retrospective, nested case-control study. We evaluated the screening strategy in our 950 bed tertiary care hospital from 2008 – 2014. Room and ward contacts of MRSA index patients present at time of MRSA identification were screened. We compared characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus Protein A (spa)-type matched contact patients (cases) to negative or spa-type mismatched contact patients (controls). Results: Among 270,000 inpatients from 2008 – 2014, 215 MRSA screenings yielded 3013 contact patients, and 6 (0.2%) spa-type matched pairs. We included 225 controls for the nested case-control study. The contact type for the cases was more frequently “same room” and less frequently “same ward” compared with the controls (P = 0.001). Also, exposure time was longer for cases (median of 6 days [IQR 3–9]) than for controls (1 day [0–3], P=0.016). Conclusion: The extensive MRSA screening strategy revealed only few index/contact matches based on spa-typing. Prolonged exposure time and a shared room were significantly associated with MRSA transmission. A targeted screening strategy may be more useful in a low prevalence setting than screening entire wards.

Abstract Background The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends administration of surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis (SAP) in cesarean section prior to incision to prevent surgical site infections (SSI). This study aimed to determine whether SAP administration following cord clamping confers an increased SSI risk to the mother. Methods Study design: Cohort. Setting: 75 participating Swiss hospitals, from 2009 to 2018. Participants: A total of 55,901 patients were analyzed. Main outcome measures: We assessed the association between SAP administration relative to incision and clamping and the SSI rate, using generalized linear multilevel models, adjusted for patient characteristics, procedural variables, and health-care system factors. Results SAP was administered before incision in 26′405 patients (47.2%) and after clamping in 29,496 patients (52.8%). Overall 846 SSIs were documented, of which 379 (1.6% [95% CI, 1.4–1.8%]) occurred before incision and 449 (1.7% [1.5–1.9%]) after clamping (p = 0.759). The adjusted odds ratio for SAP administration after clamping was not significantly associated with an increased SSI rate (1.14, 95% CI 0.96–1.36; p = 0.144) when compared to before incision. Supplementary and subgroup analyses supported these main results. Conclusions This study did not confirm an increased SSI risk for the mother in cesarean section if SAP is given after umbilical cord clamping compared to before incision.

Abstract Objectives To determine the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission by aerosols, to provide evidence on the rational use of masks, and to discuss additional measures important for the protection of healthcare workers from COVID-19. Methods Literature review and expert opinion. Short conclusion SARS-CoV-2, the pathogen causing COVID-19, is considered to be transmitted via droplets rather than aerosols, but droplets with strong directional airflow support may spread further than 2 m. High rates of COVID-19 infections in healthcare-workers (HCWs) have been reported from several countries. Respirators such as filtering face piece (FFP) 2 masks were designed to protect HCWs, while surgical masks were originally intended to protect patients (e.g., during surgery). Nevertheless, high quality standard surgical masks (type II/IIR according to European Norm EN 14683) appear to be as effective as FFP2 masks in preventing droplet-associated viral infections of HCWs as reported from influenza or SARS. So far, no head-to-head trials with these masks have been published for COVID-19. Neither mask type completely prevents transmission, which may be due to inappropriate handling and alternative transmission pathways. Therefore, compliance with a bundle of infection control measures including thorough hand hygiene is key. During high-risk procedures, both droplets and aerosols may be produced, reason why respirators are indicated for these interventions.

BACKGROUND: When the periods of time during and after the first wave of the ongoing SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 pandemic in Europe are compared, the associated COVID-19 mortality seems to have decreased substantially. Various factors could explain this trend, including changes in demographic characteristics of infected persons and the improvement of case management. To date, no study has been performed to investigate the evolution of COVID-19 in-hospital mortality in Switzerland, while also accounting for risk factors. METHODS: We investigated the trends in COVID-19-related mortality (in-hospital and in-intermediate/intensive-care) over time in Switzerland, from February 2020 to June 2021, comparing in particular the first and the second wave. We used data from the COVID-19 Hospital-based Surveillance (CH-SUR) database. We performed survival analyses adjusting for well-known risk factors of COVID-19 mortality (age, sex and comorbidities) and accounting for competing risk. RESULTS: Our analysis included 16,984 patients recorded in CH-SUR, with 2201 reported deaths due to COVID-19 (13.0%). We found that overall in-hospital mortality was lower during the second wave of COVID-19 than in the first wave (hazard ratio [HR] 0.70, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.63– 0.78; p

OBJECTIVES Optimal surveillance and prevention of healthcare-associated infections (HAI) are crucial for a well-functioning health care system. With a view to establishing a national state-of-the-art programme for surveillance and prevention of HAIs, the Swiss National Center for Infection Control, Swissnoso, developed a survey to explore the options for expanding the existing Swiss HAI surveillance system. METHODS An online survey was sent to all Swiss acute care hospitals. Local infection prevention and control (IPC) professionals were asked to answer on behalf of their institutions. The questions covered the structure and organisation of IPC programmes, current preventive measures, availability and capacity of electronic medical record (EMR) systems, and ability and willingness to establish and participate in the proposed new surveillance modules. An invitation was sent to the 156 acute care hospitals and hospital networks in June 2020. Responses were collected up to the end of August 2020. RESULTS Ninety-four hospitals and hospital networks out of 156 (60%) completed the survey. Among 84 hospitals reporting the number of acute care beds, 61 (73%) were small (650 beds). Twenty-nine different EMR systems were used in the participating hospitals. Twenty-two hospitals were using a different EMR system in their intensive care unit. There were 17 hospitals (18%) without an EMR system but which planned to introduce one soon, and eight small hospitals (9%) neither had an EMR system nor were preparing to introduce one. Surveillance for central-line associated bloodstream infection, catheter-associated urinary tract infection and ventilator-associated pneumonia were already established in 26 (28%), 15 (16%) and 15 (16%) hospitals, respectively. Thirty hospitals (36%) would be willing to participate in the pilot phase of a new surveillance system. Of these, 15 stated that they wanted to be part of the pilot hospital network, 6 could provide hospital-wide surveillance denominators (such as catheter-days and patient-days) to compute incidence rates, and 8 indicated interest in doing both. Large hospitals interested in participating in the pilot phase reported more full-time equivalent staff available for surveillance activities than those who did not declare an interest. CONCLUSIONS Baseline information on hospital IPC structure and process indicators are essential for the roll-out of national surveillance programmes and for improving surveillance activities. Having an EMR system in place and adequate personnel resources dedicated for surveillance activities are crucial prerequisites for developing and implementing an effective HAI surveillance system. The lack of an EMR system and the diversity and capacities of EMR solutions will be the main challenges for successful implementation of national HAI surveillance modules.

BACKGROUND As clinical signs of COVID-19 differ widely among individuals, from mild to severe, the definition of risk groups has important consequences for recommendations to the public, control measures and patient management, and needs to be reviewed regularly. AIM The aim of this study was to explore risk factors for in-hospital mortality and intensive care unit (ICU) admission for hospitalised COVID-19 patients during the first epidemic wave in Switzerland, as an example of a country that coped well during the first wave of the pandemic. METHODS This study included all (n = 3590) adult polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-confirmed hospitalised patients in 17 hospitals from the hospital-based surveillance of COVID-19 (CH-Sur) by 1 September 2020. We calculated univariable and multivariable (adjusted) (1) proportional hazards (Fine and Gray) survival regression models and (2) logistic regression models for in-hospital mortality and admission to ICU, to evaluate the most common comorbidities as potential risk factors. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION We found that old age was the strongest factor for in-hospital mortality after having adjusted for gender and the considered comorbidities (hazard ratio [HR] 2.46, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.33−2.59 and HR 5.6 95% CI 5.23−6 for ages 65 and 80 years, respectively). In addition, male gender remained an important risk factor in the multivariable models (HR 1.47, 95% CI 1.41−1.53). Of all comorbidities, renal disease, oncological pathologies, chronic respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease (but not hypertension) and dementia were also risk factors for in-hospital mortality. With respect to ICU admission risk, the pattern was different, as patients with higher chances of survival might have been admitted more often to ICU. Male gender (OR 1.91, 95% CI 1.58−2.31), hypertension (OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.07−1.59) and age 55–79 years (OR 1.15, 95% CI 1.06−1.26) are risk factors for ICU admission. Patients aged 80+ years, as well as patients with dementia or with liver disease were admitted less often to ICU. CONCLUSION We conclude that increasing age is the most important risk factor for in-hospital mortality of hospitalised COVID-19 patients in Switzerland, along with male gender and followed by the presence of comorbidities such as renal diseases, chronic respiratory or cardiovascular disease, oncological malignancies and dementia. Male gender, hypertension and age between 55 and 79 years are, however, risk factors for ICU admission. Mortality and ICU admission need to be considered as separate outcomes when investigating risk factors for pandemic control measures and for hospital resources planning.

Abstract Background A number of episodes of nosocomial Agrobacterium spp. bacteremia (two cases per year) were observed at Bern University Hospital, Switzerland, from 2015 to 2017. This triggered an outbreak investigation. Methods Cases of Agrobacterium spp. bacteremias that occurred between August 2011 and February 2017 were investigated employing line lists, environmental sampling, rapid protein- (MALDI-TOF MS), and genome-based typing (pulsed field gel electrophoresis and whole genome sequencing) of the clinical isolates. Results We describe a total of eight bacteremia episodes due to A. radiobacter (n = 2), Agrobacterium genomovar G3 (n = 5) and A. pusense (n = 1). Two tight clusters were observed by WGS typing, representing the two A. radiobacter isolates (cluster I, isolated in 2015) and four of the Agrobacterium genomovar G3 isolates (cluster II, isolated in 2016 and 2017), suggesting two different point sources. The epidemiological investigations revealed two computer tomography (CT) rooms as common patient locations, which correlated with the two outbreak clusters. MALDI-TOF MS permitted faster evaluation of strain relatedness than DNA-based methods. High resolution WGS-based typing confirmed the MALDI-TOF MS clustering. Conclusions We report clinical and epidemiological characteristics of two outbreak clusters with Agrobacterium. spp. bacteremia likely acquired during CT contrast medium injection and highlight the use of MALDI-TOF MS as a rapid tool to assess relatedness of rare gram-negative pathogens in an outbreak investigation.

A recent hospital outbreak related to premoistened gloves used to wash patients exposed the difficulties of defining Burkholderia species in clinical settings. The outbreak strain displayed key B. stabilis phenotypes, including the inability to grow at 42°C; we used whole-genome sequencing to confirm the pathogen was B. stabilis. The outbreak strain genome comprises 3 chromosomes and a plasmid, sharing an average nucleotide identity of 98.4% with B. stabilis ATCC27515 BAA-67, but with 13% novel coding sequences. The genome lacks identifiable virulence factors and has no apparent increase in encoded antimicrobial drug resistance, few insertion sequences, and few pseudogenes, suggesting this outbreak was an opportunistic infection by an environmental strain not adapted to human pathogenicity. The diversity among outbreak isolates (22 from patients and 16 from washing gloves) is only 6 single-nucleotide polymorphisms, although the genome remains plastic, with large elements stochastically lost from outbreak isolates.

Abstract Background The aim of the study was to evaluate the composition and the temporal evolution of the oropharyngeal microbiome in antibiotic-naïve patients requiring mechanical ventilation and to gain new insights into the pathogenesis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). Methods Prospective, observational single-center nested case-control study. Patients with acute critical illness and anticipated duration of mechanical ventilation > 4 days were eligible. We took oropharyngeal swabs (and if available, tracheal secretions) daily, starting at the day of intubation. The microbiota was characterized by 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing and compared between patients developing VAP versus controls. Results Five patients developed VAP. In three patient the causative pathogens were Enterobacteriaceae and in two Haemophilus influenzae. Locally weighted polynomial regression suggested that the within diversity (=alpha) was lower in Enterobacteriaceae VAP patients between days two to five of mechanical ventilation when compared to controls. Detection of Enterobacteriaceae in the oropharynx occurred on day two of follow-up and consisted of a single operational taxonomic unit in 2/3 patients with enterobacterial VAP. Conclusions In acutely-ill patients who developed enterobacterial VAP the causative pathogen gained access to the oropharynx early after starting mechanical ventilation and outgrew the commensal members of the microbiome. Whether a specific pattern of the oropharyngeal microbiome between days three to five of mechanical ventilation may predict VAP enterobacterial VAP has to be evaluated in further studies.

Abstract This nation-wide survey on the epidemiology of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) included 142 healthcare institutions and showed an increasing number of VRE colonizations and infections in Switzerland, probably for the most part due to nosocomial dissemination. The introduction and spread of a new clone, gaps in VRE screening policies as well as heterogeneity regarding the management of VRE clusters may be possible explanations.

Abstract Background Catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSI) with coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) are a common source of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections. The main objective of this study was to elucidate the role of systemic antibiotic therapy in the setting of catheter removal in adult patients with CoNS-CRBSI. Methods We conducted a retrospective cohort study on patients with CoNS-CRBSI diagnosed between 2008 and 2016 with follow-up for up to 12 months. The main inclusion criterion was a removed intravascular catheter with quantitative catheter tip culture growing CoNS and the same CoNS identified in the blood culture of a given patient. Outcomes were non-resolved infection (i.e. either presence of prolonged bacteremia or symptoms attributed to CoNS-CRBSI > 2 days after catheter removal), recurrence, mortality and length of hospitalization after catheter removal. We compared outcomes between a group with antibiotic treatment prescribed according to current IDSA guidelines (≥5 days, “treatment” group) and a “no-treatment” group. Results Our study population comprised 184 CoNS-CRBSI episodes. Seventy-six percent received antibiotic treatment ≥5 days, while 17% did not receive therapy. Non-resolved infections were absent from the patients who did not receive antibiotics. Severe neutropenia, hematologic cancer and immunosuppression were significantly more frequent in the treatment group. The subgroup analysis with 32 matched pairs showed no significant difference in frequency of non-resolved infection (0% in the no-treatment vs 15.6% in the ≥5 days treatment group, p = 0.06). The remaining outcomes were similar in the two groups. Conclusions Our findings indicate that withholding antimicrobial therapy in CoNS-CRBSI is neither associated with short-term complications nor with long-term recurrences.

Clostridioides difficile causes nosocomial outbreaks which can lead to severe and even life-threatening colitis. Rapid molecular diagnostic tests allow the identification of toxin-producing, potentially hypervirulent strains, which is critical for patient management and infection control. PCR-ribotyping has been used for decades as the reference standard to investigate transmission in suspected outbreaks. However, the introduction of whole genome sequencing (WGS) for molecular epidemiology provides a realistic alternative to PCR-ribotyping. In this transition phase it is crucial to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the two technologies, and to assess their correlation. We aimed to investigate ribotype prediction from WGS data, and options for analysis at different levels of analytical granularity. Ribotypes cannot be directly determined from short read Illumina sequence data as the rRNA operons including the ribotype-defining ISR fragments collapse in genome assemblies, and comparison with traditional PCR-ribotyping results becomes impossible. Ribotype extraction from long read Oxford nanopore data also requires optimization. We have compared WGS-based typing with PCR-ribotyping in nearly 300 clinical and environmental isolates from Switzerland, and in addition from the Enterobase database (n=1778). Our results show that while multi-locus sequence type (MLST) often correlates with a specific ribotype, the agreement is not complete, and for some ribotypes the resolution is insufficient. Using core genome MLST (cgMLST) analysis, there is an improved resolution and ribotypes can often be predicted within clusters, using cutoffs of 30-50 allele differences. The exceptions are ribotypes within known ribotype complexes such as RT078/RT106, where the genome differences in cgMLST do not reflect the ribotype segregation. We show that different ribotype clusters display different degrees of diversity, which could be important for the definition of ribotype cluster specific cutoffs. WGS-based analysis offers the ultimate resolution to the SNP level, enabling exploration of patient-to-patient transmission. PCR-ribotyping does not sufficiently discriminate to prove nosocomial transmission with certainty. We discuss the associated challenges and opportunities in a switch to WGS from conventional ribotyping for C. difficile.

Summary: Background: Over the past decades, the Burkholderia cepacia complex (BCC) has been linked to multiple healthcare-associated outbreaks. No systematic analysis of these outbreaks has been carried out to date. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review of reports on nosocomial BCC outbreaks. Methods: Published studies from 1971 until 9/12/2019 presenting nosocomial BCC outbreaks were identified using Embase, Pubmed and abstracts from professional meetings. Results: We identified a total of 111 outbreak reports. Thirty-two percent of the affected institutions were academic hospitals and 43.8% community hospitals. The average outbreak duration was 198.6 ± 604.4 days. A total of 240 deaths (10% of the 2390 case patients) were reported but only 28 (1.2% of the 2390 case patients and 11.7% of the 240 deaths) were directly attributable to BCC. The source could be identified in 73.9% of the outbreaks; 53.2% were caused by contaminated medical solutions and medications, 12% were due to a contaminated disinfectant. In 28.2% of the outbreaks intrinsic product contamination was reported. Multidrug resistance was noted in 26.1% of the BCC strains. PFGE was the most frequently used typing method (43.2%) in the context of outbreak work-up. Conclusion: Medical products are the most frequent source of BCC outbreaks, representing over half of the identified sources, with 12% of the outbreaks caused by disinfectant products. Intrinsic product contamination was detected frequently, suggesting a need for stricter regulation. While BCC-related mortality was low, our systematic review revealed significant heterogeneity in both investigations and reporting of BCC outbreaks.

Abstract Background Monitoring antimicrobial use and resistance in hospitals are important tools of antimicrobial stewardship programs. We aimed to determine the association between the use of frequently prescribed antibiotics and the corresponding resistance rates in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae among the clinical departments of a tertiary care hospital. Methods We performed a retrospective observational study to analyse the use of nine frequently prescribed antibiotics and the corresponding antimicrobial resistance rates in hospital acquired E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates from 18 departments of our institution over 9 years (2008–2016). The main cross-sectional analysis assessed the hypothetical influence of antibiotic consumption on resistance by mixed logistic regression models. Results We found an association between antibiotic use and resistance rates in E. coli for amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (OR per each step of 5 defined daily dose/100 bed-days 1.07, 95% CI 1.02–1.12; p = 0.004), piperacillin-tazobactam (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.45–3.07; p

Abstract In this cross-sectional Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America Research Network survey on knowledge sharing in infection prevention we identified a rudimentary understanding of how to communicate and share knowledge within healthcare institutions. Our data support the need of further research in this important field.

Abstract Subsequent bloodstream infections (sBSI) occur with a delay after removal of the intravascular catheter (IVC) whose tip revealed microbial growth. Here we describe the epidemiology of sBSI in the intensive care setting. Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and yeast were the pathogens most frequently associated with sBSI. In contrast, Enterococci were rarely found in sBSI.

Investigations of a worldwide epidemic of invasive Mycobacterium chimaera associated with heater–cooler devices in cardiac surgery have been hampered by low clinical awareness and challenging diagnoses. Using data from Switzerland, we estimated the burden of invasive M. chimaera to be 156–282 cases/year in 10 major cardiac valve replacement market countries.

Objective To evaluate changes in staff perspectives towards indwelling urinary catheter (IUC) use after implementation of a 1-year quality improvement project.Design Repeated cross-sectional survey at baseline (October 2016) and 12-month follow-up (October 2017).Setting Seven acute care hospitals in Switzerland.Participants The survey was targeted at all nursing and medical staff members working at the participating hospitals at the time of survey distribution. A total of 1579 staff members participated in the baseline survey (T0) (49% response rate) and 1527 participated in the follow-up survey (T1) (47% response rate).Intervention A multimodal intervention bundle, consisting of an evidence-based indication list, daily re-evaluation of ongoing catheter need and staff training, was implemented over the course of 9 months.Main outcome measures Staff knowledge (15 items), perception of current practices and culture (scale 1–7), self-reported responsibilities (multiple-response question) and determinants of behaviour (scale 1–7) before and after implementation of the intervention bundle.Results The mean number of correctly answered knowledge questions increased significantly between the two survey periods (T0: 10.4, T1: 11.0; p

Abstract Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous Ca2+‐sensing protein regulating many important cellular processes. Several CaM‐associated variants have been identified in a small group of patients with cardiac arrhythmias. The mechanism remains largely unknown, even though a number of ion channels, including the ryanodine receptors and the L‐type calcium channels have been shown to be functionally affected by the presence of mutant CaM. CaM is constitutively bound to the SK channel, which underlies the calcium‐gated ISK contributing to cardiac repolarization. The CaM binding to SK channels is essential for gating, correct assembly, and membrane expression. To elucidate the effect of nine different arrhythmogenic CaM variants on SK3 channel function, HEK293 cells stably expressing SK3 were transiently co‐transfected with CaMWT or variant and whole‐cell patch‐clamp recordings were performed with a calculated free Ca2+ concentration of 400 nmol/L. MDCK cells were transiently transfected with SK3 and/or CaMWT or variant to address SK3 and CaM localization by immunocytochemistry. The LQTS‐associated variants CaMD96V, CaMD130G, and CaMF142L reduced ISK,Ca compared with CaMWT (P

BACKGROUND The overall burden of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) remains high, even in high-income countries. However, the current burden of HAI in Switzerland is unknown. Prevalence surveys have a long tradition in the field of infection prevention and control for measuring both HAI and antimicrobial use. The objective of this survey was to test the point prevalence survey (PPS) methodology of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) in acute-care hospitals in Switzerland. METHODS Two tertiary care hospitals and one secondary care hospital in central and western Switzerland participated in the survey. Patients from all wards except for emergency departments and psychiatric wards were included. Data were collected on a single day for every ward with a maximum time frame of 2 weeks for completing data collection. Methodology and definitions were based on the most recent ECDC PPS protocol. RESULTS Data on a total of 2421 patients were analysed. One hundred thirty-six patients had 153 HAIs, corresponding to a prevalence of 5.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4.7–6.5%). Rapidly fatal McCabe score, hospitalisation in the intensive care unit (ICU), and having a medical device in place were independent risk factors for HAI. Lower respiratory tract infection was the most frequent HAI type (24.8%), followed by surgical site infection (22.2%), bloodstream infection (17.0%) and urinary tract infection (13.7%). The highest HAI prevalence (26.2%) was observed in the ICU. In total, 60.8% of all HAIs were microbiologically confirmed. The most common microorganism was Escherichia coli (21.1%). Six hundred sixty-nine patients (27.6%, 95% CI 25.9–29.4%) received 893 antimicrobials for 705 indications. Community-acquired infections (39.0%) were the most common indication for antimicrobial use and amoxicillin-clavulanate was the most commonly prescribed antimicrobial (18.4%). CONCLUSIONS HAI prevalence and antimicrobial use in this survey were similar to findings of the past ECDC PPS. The ECDC methodology proved applicable to Swiss acute-care hospitals.

AIMS OF THE STUDY In our hospital, a previous attempt to introduce peripherally inserted central catheters (PICC) was aborted after a nonsystematic approach, seemingly accompanied by high rates of complications. The goal of this new interdisciplinary project was to introduce PICCs in an academic hospital, with an embedded interdisciplinary surveillance programme for both infectious and noninfectious outcomes. METHODS We prospectively collected data for this surveillance study from all patients who underwent PICC insertion from 1 January 2014 and had the catheter removed by 31 December 2015 in our 950-bed academic hospital (Bern University Hospital, Switzerland). Infectious complications were defined according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention / National Healthcare Safety Network criteria. PICCs were restricted to cancer and infectious disease patients, and were followed up irrespective of the management setting (inpatient, outpatient or intermittently hospitalised after insertion). An interdisciplinary team reviewed the outcomes on a routine basis and discussed changes to the process to improve outcomes, if necessary. RESULTS One hundred and thirty-five PICCs were inserted in 124 patients, the majority of whom were patients from the medical oncology department (n = 107, 86.3%). Indications for PICC insertion included: chemotherapy (n = 97, 71.9%), antibiotic therapy (n = 24, 17.8%), total parenteral nutrition (n = 8, 5.9%), blood product transfusion (n = 4, 3.0%) and palliative care (n = 2, 1.5%). During a total of 10 402 catheter-days (median dwell time 62 days), there were five central line-associated bloodstream infections, including one mucosal barrier injury laboratory-confirmed bloodstream infection and two exit-site infections, yielding incidence rates of 0.48 and 0.19 infections per 1000 catheter-days, respectively. Incidence rates were 0.67 per 1000 catheter-days (n = 7) for radiologically documented deep venous thrombosis, 0.96 (n = 10) for tip dislocation and 0.67 (n = 7) for catheter occlusion. The overall rate of complications was 4.5 per 1000 catheter-days. Seventeen catheters (12.6%) were removed because of any complication. CONCLUSION We successfully introduced PICCs in an academic hospital by implementing a systematic surveillance programme for complications. Both infectious and noninfectious complications were rare. Infection prevention specialists should be actively involved during the introduction of new intravascular devices in order to provide quality indicators and assure patient safety.

Zhuolin Han, Stephen Y Liang, Jonas MarschallDivision of Infectious Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine in St Louis, St Louis, MO, USAAbstract: Central venous catheters are an invaluable tool for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in today’s medicine, but their use can be complicated by bloodstream infections (BSIs). While evidence-based preventive measures are disseminated by infection control associations, the optimal management of established central line-associated BSIs has been summarized in infectious diseases guidelines. We prepared an overview of the state-of-the-art of prevention and management of central line-associated BSIs and included topics such as the role of antibiotic-coated catheters, the role of catheter removal in the management, and a review of currently used antibiotic compounds and the duration of treatment.Keywords: central venous catheters, bloodstream infections, guidelines, prevention

Urinary tract infections are the most common cause of E. coli bloodstream infections (BSI) but the mechanism of bloodstream invasion is poorly understood. Some clinical isolates have been observed to shield themselves with extracellular amyloid fibers called curli at physiologic temperature. We hypothesize that curli fiber assembly at 37 °C promotes bacteremic progression by urinary E. coli strains. Curli expression by cultured E. coli isolates from bacteriuric patients in the presence and absence of bacteremia were compared using Western blotting following amyloid fiber disruption with hexafluoroisopropanol. At 37 °C, urinary isolates from bacteremic patients were more likely to express curli than those from non-bacteremic patients [16/22 (73%) vs. 7/21 (33%); p = 0.01]. No significant difference in curli expression was observed at 30 °C [86% (19/22) vs. 76% (16/21); p = 0.5]. Isolates were clonally diverse between patients, indicating that this phenotype is distributed across multiple lineages. Most same-patient urine and blood isolates were highly related, consistent with direct invasion of urinary bacteria into the bloodstream. 37 °C curli expression was associated with bacteremic progression of urinary E. coli isolates in this population. These findings suggest new future diagnostic and virulence-targeting therapeutic approaches.

BACKGROUND: Enterococci are an important cause of central venous catheter (CVC)-associated bloodstream infections (CA-BSI). It is unclear whether CVC removal is necessary to successfully manage enterococcal CA-BSI.

Vancomycin is U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for treatment of serious infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or in individuals who have failed, cannot tolerate, or are allergic to other antibiotics. Very few cases of vancomycin-associated leukocytoclastic vasculitis have been published. We report on a patient who developed pruritus and palpable purpura in both lower extremities after receiving six days of intravenous vancomycin. Skin biopsy revealed leukocytoclastic vasculitis.