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1. Possibility for reverse zoonotic transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to free-ranging wildlife: A case study of bats.

Author: Kevin J Olival, Paul M Cryan, Brian R Amman, Ralph S Baric, David S Blehert, Cara E Brook, Charles H Calisher, Kevin T Castle, Jeremy T H Coleman, Peter Daszak, Jonathan H Epstein, Hume Field, Winifred F Frick, Amy T Gilbert, David T S Hayman, Hon S Ip, William B Karesh, Christine K Johnson, Rebekah C Kading, Tigga Kingston, Jeffrey M Lorch, Ian H Mendenhall, Alison J Peel, Kendra L Phelps, Raina K Plowright, DeeAnn M Reeder, Jonathan D Reichard, Jonathan M Sleeman, Daniel G Streicker, Jonathan S Towner, and Lin-Fa Wang
Subjects: Immunologic diseases. Allergy, RC581-607, Biology (General), QH301-705.5
Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the substantial public health, economic, and societal consequences of virus spillover from a wildlife reservoir. Widespread human transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) also presents a new set of challenges when considering viral spillover from people to naïve wildlife and other animal populations. The establishment of new wildlife reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2 would further complicate public health control measures and could lead to wildlife health and conservation impacts. Given the likely bat origin of SARS-CoV-2 and related beta-coronaviruses (β-CoVs), free-ranging bats are a key group of concern for spillover from humans back to wildlife. Here, we review the diversity and natural host range of β-CoVs in bats and examine the risk of humans inadvertently infecting free-ranging bats with SARS-CoV-2. Our review of the global distribution and host range of β-CoV evolutionary lineages suggests that 40+ species of temperate-zone North American bats could be immunologically naïve and susceptible to infection by SARS-CoV-2. We highlight an urgent need to proactively connect the wellbeing of human and wildlife health during the current pandemic and to implement new tools to continue wildlife research while avoiding potentially severe health and conservation impacts of SARS-CoV-2 "spilling back" into free-ranging bat populations.
Published: 2020
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2. Experimental infection of Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) with Sosuga virus demonstrates potential transmission routes for a bat-borne human pathogenic paramyxovirus.

Author: Brian R Amman, Amy J Schuh, Tara K Sealy, Jessica R Spengler, Stephen R Welch, Shannon G M Kirejczyk, César G Albariño, Stuart T Nichol, and Jonathan S Towner
Subjects: Arctic medicine. Tropical medicine, RC955-962, Public aspects of medicine, RA1-1270
Abstract: In August 2012, a wildlife biologist became severely ill after becoming infected with a novel paramyxovirus, termed Sosuga virus. In the weeks prior to illness, the patient worked with multiple species of bats in South Sudan and Uganda, including Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs: Rousettus aegyptiacus). A follow-up study of Ugandan bats found multiple wild-caught ERBs to test positive for SOSV in liver and spleen. To determine the competency of these bats to act as a natural reservoir host for SOSV capable of infecting humans, captive-bred ERBs were inoculated with a recombinant SOSV, representative of the patient's virus sequence. The bats were inoculated subcutaneously, sampled daily (blood, urine, fecal, oral and rectal swabs) and serially euthanized at predetermined time points. All inoculated bats became infected with SOSV in multiple tissues and blood, urine, oral, rectal and fecal swabs tested positive for SOSV RNA. No evidence of overt morbidity or mortality were observed in infected ERBs, although histopathological examination showed subclinical disease in a subset of tissues. Importantly, SOSV was isolated from oral/rectal swabs, urine and feces, demonstrating shedding of infectious virus concomitant with systemic infection. All bats euthanized at 21 days post-inoculation (DPI) seroconverted to SOSV between 16 and 21 DPI. These results are consistent with ERBs being competent reservoir hosts for SOSV with spillover potential to humans.
Published: 2020
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3. Human macrophages infected with Egyptian Rousette bat-isolated Marburg virus display inter-individual susceptibility and antiviral responsiveness

Author: Ivet A. Yordanova, Angelika Lander, Annette Wahlbrink, Jonathan S. Towner, César G. Albariño, Lay Teng Ang, and Joseph B. Prescott
Subjects: Infectious and parasitic diseases, RC109-216, Biology (General), QH301-705.5
Abstract: Abstract Marburg virus (MARV) is a highly pathogenic filovirus and a causative agent of sporadic zoonotic viral hemorrhagic fever outbreaks with high case fatality rates. In humans, filoviruses like MARV and Zaire Ebola virus (EBOV) target, among others, innate immune cells like dendritic cells and macrophages (MΦs). Filovirus-infected dendritic cells display impaired maturation and antigen presentation, while MΦs become hyper-activated and secrete proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Our current understanding of human macrophage responses to MARV remains limited. Here, we used human monocyte-derived macrophages (moMΦs) to address how their phenotype, transcriptional profile, and protein expression change upon an in vitro infection with a bat isolate of MARV. Confirming its tropism for macrophages, we show that MARV induces notable shifts in their transcription distinct from responses induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), marked by upregulated gene expression of several chemokines, type I interferons, and IFN-stimulated genes. MARV infection also elicited pronounced inter-individually different transcriptional programs in moMΦs, the induction of Wnt signaling-associated genes, and the downregulation of multiple biological processes and molecular pathways.
Published: 2024
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4. Coordinated inflammatory responses dictate Marburg virus control by reservoir bats

Author: Jonathan C. Guito, Shannon G. M. Kirejczyk, Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Tara K. Sealy, James Graziano, Jessica R. Spengler, Jessica R. Harmon, David M. Wozniak, Joseph B. Prescott, and Jonathan S. Towner
Subjects: Science
Abstract: Abstract Bats are increasingly recognized as reservoirs of emerging zoonotic pathogens. Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs) are the known reservoir of Marburg virus (MARV), a filovirus that causes deadly Marburg virus disease (MVD) in humans. However, ERBs harbor MARV asymptomatically, likely due to a coadapted and specific host immunity-pathogen relationship. Recently, we measured transcriptional responses in MARV-infected ERB whole tissues, showing that these bats possess a disease tolerant strategy that limits pro-inflammatory gene induction, presumably averting MVD-linked immunopathology. However, the host resistant strategy by which ERBs actively limit MARV burden remains elusive, which we hypothesize requires localized inflammatory responses unresolvable at bulk-tissue scale. Here, we use dexamethasone to attenuate ERB pro-inflammatory responses and assess MARV replication, shedding and disease. We show that MARV-infected ERBs naturally mount coordinated pro-inflammatory responses at liver foci of infection, comprised of recruited mononuclear phagocytes and T cells, the latter of which proliferate with likely MARV-specificity. When pro-inflammatory responses are diminished, ERBs display heightened MARV replication, oral/rectal shedding and severe MVD-like liver pathology, demonstrating that ERBs balance immunoprotective tolerance with discreet MARV-resistant pro-inflammatory responses. These data further suggest that natural ERB immunomodulatory stressors like food scarcity and habitat disruption may potentiate viral shedding, transmission and therefore outbreak risk.
Published: 2024
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5. Seasonal pulses of Marburg virus circulation in juvenile Rousettus aegyptiacus bats coincide with periods of increased risk of human infection.

Author: Brian R Amman, Serena A Carroll, Zachary D Reed, Tara K Sealy, Stephen Balinandi, Robert Swanepoel, Alan Kemp, Bobbie Rae Erickson, James A Comer, Shelley Campbell, Deborah L Cannon, Marina L Khristova, Patrick Atimnedi, Christopher D Paddock, Rebekah J Kent Crockett, Timothy D Flietstra, Kelly L Warfield, Robert Unfer, Edward Katongole-Mbidde, Robert Downing, Jordan W Tappero, Sherif R Zaki, Pierre E Rollin, Thomas G Ksiazek, Stuart T Nichol, and Jonathan S Towner
Subjects: Immunologic diseases. Allergy, RC581-607, Biology (General), QH301-705.5
Abstract: Marburg virus (family Filoviridae) causes sporadic outbreaks of severe hemorrhagic disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Bats have been implicated as likely natural reservoir hosts based most recently on an investigation of cases among miners infected in 2007 at the Kitaka mine, Uganda, which contained a large population of Marburg virus-infected Rousettus aegyptiacus fruit bats. Described here is an ecologic investigation of Python Cave, Uganda, where an American and a Dutch tourist acquired Marburg virus infection in December 2007 and July 2008. More than 40,000 R. aegyptiacus were found in the cave and were the sole bat species present. Between August 2008 and November 2009, 1,622 bats were captured and tested for Marburg virus. Q-RT-PCR analysis of bat liver/spleen tissues indicated ~2.5% of the bats were actively infected, seven of which yielded Marburg virus isolates. Moreover, Q-RT-PCR-positive lung, kidney, colon and reproductive tissues were found, consistent with potential for oral, urine, fecal or sexual transmission. The combined data for R. aegyptiacus tested from Python Cave and Kitaka mine indicate low level horizontal transmission throughout the year. However, Q-RT-PCR data show distinct pulses of virus infection in older juvenile bats (~six months of age) that temporarily coincide with the peak twice-yearly birthing seasons. Retrospective analysis of historical human infections suspected to have been the result of discrete spillover events directly from nature found 83% (54/65) events occurred during these seasonal pulses in virus circulation, perhaps demonstrating periods of increased risk of human infection. The discovery of two tags at Python Cave from bats marked at Kitaka mine, together with the close genetic linkages evident between viruses detected in geographically distant locations, are consistent with R. aegyptiacus bats existing as a large meta-population with associated virus circulation over broad geographic ranges. These findings provide a basis for developing Marburg hemorrhagic fever risk reduction strategies.
Published: 2012
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6. Transmission ecology of Sin Nombre hantavirus in naturally infected North American deermouse populations in outdoor enclosures.

Author: Karoun H Bagamian, Jonathan S Towner, Amy J Kuenzi, Richard J Douglass, Pierre E Rollin, Lance A Waller, and James N Mills
Subjects: Medicine, Science
Abstract: Sin Nombre hantavirus (SNV), hosted by the North American deermouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in North America. Most transmission studies in the host were conducted under artificial conditions, or extrapolated information from mark-recapture data. Previous studies using experimentally infected deermice were unable to demonstrate SNV transmission. We explored SNV transmission in outdoor enclosures using naturally infected deermice. Deermice acquiring SNV in enclosures had detectable viral RNA in blood throughout the acute phase of infection and acquired significantly more new wounds (indicating aggressive encounters) than uninfected deermice. Naturally-infected wild deermice had a highly variable antibody response to infection, and levels of viral RNA sustained in blood varied as much as 100-fold, even in individuals infected with identical strains of virus. Deermice that infected other susceptible individuals tended to have a higher viral RNA load than those that did not infect other deermice. Our study is a first step in exploring the transmission ecology of SNV infection in deermice and provides new knowledge about the factors contributing to the increase of the prevalence of a zoonotic pathogen in its reservoir host and to changes in the risk of HPS to human populations. The techniques pioneered in this study have implications for a wide range of zoonotic disease studies.
Published: 2012
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7. Isolation of genetically diverse Marburg viruses from Egyptian fruit bats.

Author: Jonathan S Towner, Brian R Amman, Tara K Sealy, Serena A Reeder Carroll, James A Comer, Alan Kemp, Robert Swanepoel, Christopher D Paddock, Stephen Balinandi, Marina L Khristova, Pierre B H Formenty, Cesar G Albarino, David M Miller, Zachary D Reed, John T Kayiwa, James N Mills, Deborah L Cannon, Patricia W Greer, Emmanuel Byaruhanga, Eileen C Farnon, Patrick Atimnedi, Samuel Okware, Edward Katongole-Mbidde, Robert Downing, Jordan W Tappero, Sherif R Zaki, Thomas G Ksiazek, Stuart T Nichol, and Pierre E Rollin
Subjects: Immunologic diseases. Allergy, RC581-607, Biology (General), QH301-705.5
Abstract: In July and September 2007, miners working in Kitaka Cave, Uganda, were diagnosed with Marburg hemorrhagic fever. The likely source of infection in the cave was Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) based on detection of Marburg virus RNA in 31/611 (5.1%) bats, virus-specific antibody in bat sera, and isolation of genetically diverse virus from bat tissues. The virus isolates were collected nine months apart, demonstrating long-term virus circulation. The bat colony was estimated to be over 100,000 animals using mark and re-capture methods, predicting the presence of over 5,000 virus-infected bats. The genetically diverse virus genome sequences from bats and miners closely matched. These data indicate common Egyptian fruit bats can represent a major natural reservoir and source of Marburg virus with potential for spillover into humans.
Published: 2009
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8. Newly discovered ebola virus associated with hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Uganda.

Author: Jonathan S Towner, Tara K Sealy, Marina L Khristova, César G Albariño, Sean Conlan, Serena A Reeder, Phenix-Lan Quan, W Ian Lipkin, Robert Downing, Jordan W Tappero, Samuel Okware, Julius Lutwama, Barnabas Bakamutumaho, John Kayiwa, James A Comer, Pierre E Rollin, Thomas G Ksiazek, and Stuart T Nichol
Subjects: Immunologic diseases. Allergy, RC581-607, Biology (General), QH301-705.5
Abstract: Over the past 30 years, Zaire and Sudan ebolaviruses have been responsible for large hemorrhagic fever (HF) outbreaks with case fatalities ranging from 53% to 90%, while a third species, Côte d'Ivoire ebolavirus, caused a single non-fatal HF case. In November 2007, HF cases were reported in Bundibugyo District, Western Uganda. Laboratory investigation of the initial 29 suspect-case blood specimens by classic methods (antigen capture, IgM and IgG ELISA) and a recently developed random-primed pyrosequencing approach quickly identified this to be an Ebola HF outbreak associated with a newly discovered ebolavirus species (Bundibugyo ebolavirus) distantly related to the Côte d'Ivoire ebolavirus found in western Africa. Due to the sequence divergence of this new virus relative to all previously recognized ebolaviruses, these findings have important implications for design of future diagnostic assays to monitor Ebola HF disease in humans and animals, and ongoing efforts to develop effective antivirals and vaccines.
Published: 2008
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9. Marburg virus infection detected in a common African bat.

Author: Jonathan S Towner, Xavier Pourrut, César G Albariño, Chimène Nze Nkogue, Brian H Bird, Gilda Grard, Thomas G Ksiazek, Jean-Paul Gonzalez, Stuart T Nichol, and Eric M Leroy
Subjects: Medicine, Science
Abstract: Marburg and Ebola viruses can cause large hemorrhagic fever (HF) outbreaks with high case fatality (80-90%) in human and great apes. Identification of the natural reservoir of these viruses is one of the most important topics in this field and a fundamental key to understanding their natural history. Despite the discovery of this virus family almost 40 years ago, the search for the natural reservoir of these lethal pathogens remains an enigma despite numerous ecological studies. Here, we report the discovery of Marburg virus in a common species of fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in Gabon as shown by finding virus-specific RNA and IgG antibody in individual bats. These Marburg virus positive bats represent the first naturally infected non-primate animals identified. Furthermore, this is the first report of Marburg virus being present in this area of Africa, thus extending the known range of the virus. These data imply that more areas are at risk for MHF outbreaks than previously realized and correspond well with a recently published report in which three species of fruit bats were demonstrated to be likely reservoirs for Ebola virus.
Published: 2007
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10. Micro‒Global Positioning Systems for Identifying Nightly Opportunities for Marburg Virus Spillover to Humans by Egyptian Rousette Bats

Author: Brian R. Amman, Amy J. Schuh, Gloria Akurut, Kilama Kamugisha, Dianah Namanya, Tara K. Sealy, James C. Graziano, Eric Enyel, Emily A. Wright, Stephen Balinandi, Julius J. Lutwama, Rebekah C. Kading, Patrick Atimnedi, and Jonathan S. Towner
Subjects: Marburg virus, Ravn virus, Filovirus, viruses, Egyptian rousette bat, Rousettus aegyptiacus, Medicine, Infectious and parasitic diseases, RC109-216
Abstract: Marburg virus disease, caused by Marburg and Ravn orthomarburgviruses, emerges sporadically in sub-Saharan Africa and is often fatal in humans. The natural reservoir is the Egyptian rousette bat (ERB), which sheds virus in saliva, urine, and feces. Frugivorous ERBs discard test-bitten and partially eaten fruit, potentially leaving infectious virus behind that could be consumed by other susceptible animals or humans. Historically, 8 of 17 known Marburg virus disease outbreaks have been linked to human encroachment on ERB habitats, but no linkage exists for the other 9 outbreaks, raising the question of how bats and humans might intersect, leading to virus spillover. We used micro‒global positioning systems to identify nightly ERB foraging locations. ERBs from a known Marburg virus‒infected population traveled long distances to feed in cultivated fruit trees near homes. Our results show that ERB foraging behavior represents a Marburg virus spillover risk to humans and plausibly explains the origins of some past outbreaks.
Published: 2023
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11. Tick salivary gland components dampen Kasokero virus infection and shedding in its vertebrate reservoir, the Egyptian rousette bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus)

Author: Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Jonathan C. Guito, James C. Graziano, Tara K. Sealy, and Jonathan S. Towner
Subjects: Viruses, Chiroptera, Ticks, Saliva, Infection, Virus, Infectious and parasitic diseases, RC109-216
Abstract: Abstract Background The human-pathogenic Kasokero virus (KASV) circulates in an enzootic transmission cycle between Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs; Rousettus aegyptiacus) and their argasid tick ectoparasites, Ornithodoros (Reticulinasus) faini. Although tick salivary gland components have been shown to potentiate virus infection in vertebrate non-reservoirs (i.e. incidental hosts or small animal models of disease), there is a lack of information on the effect of tick salivary gland components on viral infection and shedding in vertebrate reservoirs. Methods To determine the impact of tick salivary gland components on KASV infection and shedding in ERBs, KASV loads were quantified in blood, oral swab, rectal swab, and urine specimens collected daily through 18 days post inoculation from groups of ERBs intradermally inoculated with KASV or KASV + O. (R.) faini tick salivary gland extract (SGE). Results Bats inoculated with KASV + tick SGE had significantly lower peak and cumulative KASV viremias and rectal shedding loads compared to bats inoculated with KASV only. Conclusions We report for the first time to our knowledge that tick salivary gland components dampen arbovirus infection and shedding in a vertebrate reservoir. This study advances our understanding of biological factors underlying arbovirus maintenance in nature. Graphical abstract
Published: 2023
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12. Peripheral immune responses to filoviruses in a reservoir versus spillover hosts reveal transcriptional correlates of disease

Author: Jonathan C. Guito, Catherine E. Arnold, Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Tara K. Sealy, Jessica R. Spengler, Jessica R. Harmon, Joann D. Coleman-McCray, Mariano Sanchez-Lockhart, Gustavo F. Palacios, Jonathan S. Towner, and Joseph B. Prescott
Subjects: viral reservoir, spillover host, bats, Marburg virus, filovirus, immune response, Immunologic diseases. Allergy, RC581-607
Abstract: Several filoviruses, including Marburg virus (MARV), cause severe disease in humans and nonhuman primates (NHPs). However, the Egyptian rousette bat (ERB, Rousettus aegyptiacus), the only known MARV reservoir, shows no overt illness upon natural or experimental infection, which, like other bat hosts of zoonoses, is due to well-adapted, likely species-specific immune features. Despite advances in understanding reservoir immune responses to filoviruses, ERB peripheral blood responses to MARV and how they compare to those of diseased filovirus-infected spillover hosts remain ill-defined. We thus conducted a longitudinal analysis of ERB blood gene responses during acute MARV infection. These data were then contrasted with a compilation of published primate blood response studies to elucidate gene correlates of filovirus protection versus disease. Our work expands on previous findings in MARV-infected ERBs by supporting both host resistance and disease tolerance mechanisms, offers insight into the peripheral immunocellular repertoire during infection, and provides the most direct known cross-examination between reservoir and spillover hosts of the most prevalently-regulated response genes, pathways and activities associated with differences in filovirus pathogenesis and pathogenicity.
Published: 2024
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13. Sosuga Virus Detected in Egyptian Rousette Bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in Sierra Leone

Author: Brian R. Amman, Alusine H. Koroma, Amy J. Schuh, Immah Conteh, Tara K. Sealy, Ibrahim Foday, Jonathan Johnny, Ibrahim A. Bakarr, Shannon L. M. Whitmer, Emily A. Wright, Aiah A. Gbakima, James Graziano, Camilla Bangura, Emmanuel Kamanda, Augustus Osborne, Emmanuel Saidu, Jonathan A. Musa, Doris F. Bangura, Sammuel M. T. Williams, George M. Fefegula, Christian Sumaila, Juliet Jabaty, Fatmata H. James, Amara Jambai, Kate Garnett, Thomas F. Kamara, Jonathan S. Towner, and Aiah Lebbie
Subjects: Sosuga virus, paramyxovirus, Rousettus aegyptiacus, Egyptian rousette, range extension, zoonotic viruses, Microbiology, QR1-502
Abstract: Sosuga virus (SOSV), a rare human pathogenic paramyxovirus, was first discovered in 2012 when a person became ill after working in South Sudan and Uganda. During an ecological investigation, several species of bats were sampled and tested for SOSV RNA and only one species, the Egyptian rousette bat (ERBs; Rousettus aegyptiacus), tested positive. Since that time, multiple other species have been sampled and ERBs in Uganda have continued to be the only species of bat positive for SOSV infection. Subsequent studies of ERBs with SOSV demonstrated that ERBs are a competent host for SOSV and shed this infectious virus while exhibiting only minor infection-associated pathology. Following the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, surveillance efforts focused on discovering reservoirs for zoonotic pathogens resulted in the capture and testing of many bat species. Here, SOSV RNA was detected by qRT-PCR only in ERBs captured in the Moyamba District of Sierra Leone in the central region of the country. These findings represent a substantial range extension from East Africa to West Africa for SOSV, suggesting that this paramyxovirus may occur in ERB populations throughout its sub-Saharan African range.
Published: 2024
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14. Exposure of Egyptian Rousette Bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) and a Little Free-Tailed Bat (Chaerephon pumilus) to Alphaviruses in Uganda

Author: Rebekah C. Kading, Erin M. Borland, Eric C. Mossel, Teddy Nakayiki, Betty Nalikka, Jeremy P. Ledermann, Mary B. Crabtree, Nicholas A. Panella, Luke Nyakarahuka, Amy T. Gilbert, Julian C. Kerbis-Peterhans, Jonathan S. Towner, Brian R. Amman, Tara K. Sealy, Barry R. Miller, Julius J. Lutwama, Robert M. Kityo, and Ann M. Powers
Subjects: chiroptera, surveillance, arbovirus, mosquito, emerging virus, serology, Medicine
Abstract: The reservoir for zoonotic o’nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) has remained unknown since this virus was first recognized in Uganda in 1959. Building on existing evidence for mosquito blood-feeding on various frugivorous bat species in Uganda, and seroprevalence for arboviruses among bats in Uganda, we sought to assess if serum samples collected from bats in Uganda demonstrated evidence of exposure to ONNV or the closely related zoonotic chikungunya virus (CHIKV). In total, 652 serum samples collected from six bat species were tested by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for neutralizing antibodies against ONNV and CHIKV. Forty out of 303 (13.2%) Egyptian rousettes from Maramagambo Forest and 1/13 (8%) little free-tailed bats from Banga Nakiwogo, Entebbe contained neutralizing antibodies against ONNV. In addition, 2/303 (0.7%) of these Egyptian rousettes contained neutralizing antibodies to CHIKV, and 8/303 (2.6%) contained neutralizing antibodies that were nonspecifically reactive to alphaviruses. These data support the interepidemic circulation of ONNV and CHIKV in Uganda, although Egyptian rousette bats are unlikely to serve as reservoirs for these viruses given the inconsistent occurrence of antibody-positive bats.
Published: 2022
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15. One Health Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 in People and Animals on Multiple Mink Farms in Utah

Author: Caitlin M. Cossaboom, Natalie M. Wendling, Nathaniel M. Lewis, Hannah Rettler, Robert R. Harvey, Brian R. Amman, Jonathan S. Towner, Jessica R. Spengler, Robert Erickson, Cindy Burnett, Erin L. Young, Kelly Oakeson, Ann Carpenter, Markus H. Kainulainen, Payel Chatterjee, Mike Flint, Anna Uehara, Yan Li, Jing Zhang, Anna Kelleher, Brian Lynch, Adam C. Retchless, Suxiang Tong, Ausaf Ahmad, Paige Bunkley, Claire Godino, Owen Herzegh, Jan Drobeniuc, Jane Rooney, Dean Taylor, and Casey Barton Behravesh
Subjects: SARS-CoV-2, coronavirus, COVID-19, zoonotic transmission, animals, mink, Microbiology, QR1-502
Abstract: From July–November 2020, mink (Neogale vison) on 12 Utah farms experienced an increase in mortality rates due to confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection. We conducted epidemiologic investigations on six farms to identify the source of virus introduction, track cross-species transmission, and assess viral evolution. Interviews were conducted and specimens were collected from persons living or working on participating farms and from multiple animal species. Swabs and sera were tested by SARS-CoV-2 real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) and serological assays, respectively. Whole genome sequencing was attempted for specimens with cycle threshold values
Published: 2022
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16. Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever and Virus Detection in Rodents in Bolivia in 2019

Author: Roxana Loayza Mafayle, Maria E. Morales-Betoulle, Carla Romero, Caitlin M. Cossaboom, Shannon Whitmer, Carlos E. Alvarez Aguilera, Cinthia Avila Ardaya, Mirian Cruz Zambrana, Andrés Dávalos Anajia, Nelly Mendoza Loayza, Ana-Maria Montaño, Fernando L. Morales Alvis, Jimmy Revollo Guzmán, Sebastián Sasías Martínez, Gricel Alarcón De La Vega, Armando Medina Ramírez, Jhemis T. Molina Gutiérrez, Alex J. Cornejo Pinto, Renata Salas Bacci, Julia Brignone, Jorge Garcia, Arletta Añez, Jairo Mendez-Rico, Kleber Luz, Ariel Segales, Karen M. Torrez Cruz, Adolfo Valdivia-Cayoja, Brian R. Amman, Mary J. Choi, Bobbie-Rae Erickson, Cynthia Goldsmith, James C. Graziano, Allison Joyce, John D. Klena, Austin Leach, Jason H. Malenfant, Stuart T. Nichol, Ketan Patel, Tara Sealy, Trevor Shoemaker, Christina F. Spiropoulou, Alison Todres, Jonathan S. Towner, and Joel M. Montgomery
Subjects: Bolivia, Cross Infection, Hemorrhagic Fevers, Viral, High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing, Rodentia, General Medicine, Polymerase Chain Reaction, Viral Zoonoses, Hemorrhagic Fever, American, Article, Rats, Disease Transmission, Infectious, Animals, Humans, RNA, Viral, Arenaviruses, New World
Abstract: BACKGROUND: In June 2019, the Bolivian Ministry of Health reported a cluster of cases of hemorrhagic fever that started in the municipality of Caranavi and expanded to La Paz. The cause of these cases was unknown. METHODS: We obtained samples for next-generation sequencing and virus isolation. Human and rodent specimens were tested by means of virus-specific real-time quantitative reverse-transcriptase–polymerase-chain-reaction assays, next-generation sequencing, and virus isolation. RESULTS: Nine cases of hemorrhagic fever were identified; four of the patients with this illness died. The etiologic agent was identified as Mammarenavirus Chapare mammarenavirus, or Chapare virus (CHAPV), which causes Chapare hemorrhagic fever (CHHF). Probable nosocomial transmission among health care workers was identified. Some patients with CHHF had neurologic manifestations, and those who survived had a prolonged recovery period. CHAPV RNA was detected in a variety of human body fluids (including blood; urine; nasopharyngeal, oropharyngeal, and bronchoalveolar-lavage fluid; conjunctiva; and semen) and in specimens obtained from captured small-eared pygmy rice rats (Oligoryzomys microtis). In survivors of CHHF, viral RNA was detected up to 170 days after symptom onset; CHAPV was isolated from a semen sample obtained 86 days after symptom onset. CONCLUSIONS: M. Chapare mammarenavirus was identified as the etiologic agent of CHHF. Both spillover from a zoonotic reservoir and possible person-to-person transmission were identified. This virus was detected in a rodent species, O. microtis. (Funded by the Bolivian Ministry of Health and others.)
Published: 2022
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17. Natural reservoir Rousettus aegyptiacus bat host model of orthonairovirus infection identifies potential zoonotic spillover mechanisms

Author: Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Jonathan C. Guito, James C. Graziano, Tara K. Sealy, Shannon G. M. Kirejczyk, and Jonathan S. Towner
Subjects: Multidisciplinary
Abstract: The human-pathogenic Kasokero virus (KASV; genus Orthonairovirus) has been isolated from the sera of Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs; Rousettus aegyptiacus) captured in Uganda and unengorged Ornithodoros (Reticulinasus) faini ticks collected from the rock crevices of ERB colonies in South Africa and Uganda. Although evidence suggests that KASV is maintained in an enzootic transmission cycle between O. (R.) faini ticks and ERBs with potential for incidental virus spillover to humans through the bite of an infected tick, the vertebrate reservoir status of ERBs for KASV has never been experimentally evaluated. Furthermore, the potential for bat-to-bat and bat-to-human transmission of KASV is unknown. Herein, we inoculate two groups of ERBs with KASV; one group of bats is serially sampled to assess viremia, oral, fecal, and urinary shedding and the second group of bats is serially euthanized to assess virus-tissue tropism. Throughout the study, none of the bats exhibit overt signs of clinical disease. Following the detection of high KASV loads of long duration in blood, oral, fecal, and urine specimens collected from ERBs in the serial sampling group, all bats seroconvert to KASV. ERBs from the serial euthanasia group exhibit high KASV loads indicative of virus replication in the skin at the inoculation site, spleen, and inguinal lymph node tissue, and histopathology and in situ hybridization reveal virus replication in the liver and self-limiting, KASV-induced lymphohistiocytic hepatitis. The results of this study suggest that ERBs are competent, natural vertebrate reservoir hosts for KASV that can sustain viremias of appropriate magnitude and duration to support virus maintenance through bat-tick-bat transmission cycles. Viral shedding data suggests that KASV might also be transmitted bat-to-bat and highlights the potential for KASV spillover to humans through contact with infectious oral secretions, feces, or urine.
Published: 2022
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18. Experimental Inoculation of Egyptian Rousette Bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) with Viruses of the Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus Genera

Author: Megan E.B. Jones, Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Tara K. Sealy, Sherif R. Zaki, Stuart T. Nichol, and Jonathan S. Towner
Subjects: Ebolavirus, Marburgvirus, Rousettus aegyptiacus, Egyptian rousette bat, reservoir host, experimental infection study, Microbiology, QR1-502
Abstract: The Egyptian rousette bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) is a natural reservoir for marburgviruses and a consistent source of virus spillover to humans. Cumulative evidence suggests various bat species may also transmit ebolaviruses. We investigated the susceptibility of Egyptian rousettes to each of the five known ebolaviruses (Sudan, Ebola, Bundibugyo, Taï Forest, and Reston), and compared findings with Marburg virus. In a pilot study, groups of four juvenile bats were inoculated with one of the ebolaviruses or Marburg virus. In ebolavirus groups, viral RNA tissue distribution was limited, and no bat became viremic. Sudan viral RNA was slightly more widespread, spurring a second, 15-day Sudan virus serial euthanasia study. Low levels of Sudan viral RNA disseminated to multiple tissues at early time points, but there was no viremia or shedding. In contrast, Marburg virus RNA was widely disseminated, with viremia, oral and rectal shedding, and antigen in spleen and liver. This is the first experimental infection study comparing tissue tropism, viral shedding, and clinical and pathologic effects of six different filoviruses in the Egyptian rousette, a known marburgvirus reservoir. Our results suggest Egyptian rousettes are unlikely sources for ebolaviruses in nature, and support a possible single filovirus—single reservoir host relationship.
Published: 2015
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19. Tissue replication and mucosal swab detection of Sosuga virus in Syrian hamsters in the absence of overt tissue pathology and clinical disease

Author: Stephen R. Welch, Jana M. Ritter, Amy J. Schuh, Sarah C. Genzer, Teresa E. Sorvillo, Jessica R. Harmon, JoAnn D. Coleman-McCray, Shilpi Jain, Punya Shrivastava-Ranjan, Josilene Nascimento Seixas, Lindsey B. Estetter, Pamela S. Fair, Jonathan S. Towner, Joel M. Montgomery, César G. Albariño, Christina F. Spiropoulou, and Jessica R. Spengler
Subjects: Pharmacology, Virology
Abstract: Human infection with Sosuga virus (SOSV), a recently discovered pathogenic paramyxovirus, has been reported in one individual to date. No animal models of disease are currently available for SOSV. Here, we describe initial characterization of experimental infection in Syrian hamsters, including kinetics of virus dissemination and replication, and the corresponding clinical parameters, immunological responses, and histopathology. We demonstrate susceptibility of hamsters to infection in the absence of clinical signs or significant histopathologic findings in tissues.
Published: 2022

20. GPS Tracking of Free-Roaming Cats (

Author: Brian R, Amman, Caitlin M, Cossaboom, Natalie M, Wendling, R Reid, Harvey, Hannah, Rettler, Dean, Taylor, Markus H, Kainulainen, Ausaf, Ahmad, Paige, Bunkley, Claire, Godino, Suxiang, Tong, Yan, Li, Anna, Uehara, Anna, Kelleher, Jing, Zhang, Brian, Lynch, Casey Barton, Behravesh, and Jonathan S, Towner
Subjects: Farms, SARS-CoV-2, Mink, Utah, Cats, Animals, Humans, COVID-19
Abstract: Zoonotic transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from infected humans to other animals has been documented around the world, most notably in mink farming operations in Europe and the United States. Outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 on Utah mink farms began in late July 2020 and resulted in high mink mortality. An investigation of these outbreaks revealed active and past SARS-CoV-2 infections in free-roaming and in feral cats living on or near several mink farms. Cats were captured using live traps, were sampled, fitted with GPS collars, and released on the farms. GPS tracking of these cats show they made frequent visits to mink sheds, moved freely around the affected farms, and visited surrounding residential properties and neighborhoods on multiple occasions, making them potential low risk vectors of additional SARS-CoV-2 spread in local communities.
Published: 2022

21. Marburgvirus Resurgence in Kitaka Mine Bat Population after Extermination Attempts, Uganda

Author: Brian Amman, Luke Nyakarahuka, Anita K. McElroy, Kimberly A. Dodd, Tara Sealy, Amy J. Schuh, Trevor R. Shoemaker, Stephen Balinandi, Patrick Atimnedi, Winyi Kaboyo, Stuart T. Nichol, and Jonathan S. Towner
Subjects: Marburgvirus, Rousettus aegyptiacus, bats, mine, miners, outbreak, Medicine, Infectious and parasitic diseases, RC109-216
Published: 2014
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22. Human-Pathogenic Kasokero Virus in Field-Collected Ticks

Author: Jonathan S. Towner, Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Ketan Patel, Tara K. Sealy, and Robert Swanepoel
Subjects: Microbiology (medical), Rousettus, Epidemiology, Bunyaviridae, 030231 tropical medicine, vector-borne infections, bats, Zoology, lcsh:Medicine, Biology, Tick, Virus, ticks, lcsh:Infectious and parasitic diseases, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, nairoviruses, Chiroptera, parasitic diseases, Animals, Humans, Uganda, lcsh:RC109-216, 030212 general & internal medicine, Ornithodoros, Phylogeny, Nairovirus, Host (biology), Research, Argasidae, lcsh:R, biology.organism_classification, bacterial infections and mycoses, Infectious Diseases, Human-Pathogenic Kasokero Virus in Field-Collected Ticks, arboviruses, Viruses, Enzootic, ecology
Abstract: Kasokero virus (KASV; genus Orthonairovirus) was first isolated in 1977 at Uganda Virus Research Institute from serum collected from Rousettus aegyptiacus bats captured at Kasokero Cave, Uganda. During virus characterization studies at the institute, 4 laboratory-associated infections resulted in mild to severe disease. Although orthonairoviruses are typically associated with vertebrate and tick hosts, a tick vector of KASV never has been reported. We tested 786 Ornithodoros (Reticulinasus) faini tick pools (3,930 ticks) for KASV. The ticks were collected from a large R. aegyptiacus bat roosting site in western Uganda. We detected KASV RNA in 43 tick pools and recovered 2 infectious isolates, 1 of which was derived from host blood-depleted ticks. Our findings suggest that KASV is maintained in an enzootic transmission cycle involving O. (R.) faini ticks and R. aegyptiacus bats and has the potential for incidental virus spillover to humans.
Published: 2020

23. Histopathologic and Immunohistochemical Evaluation of Induced Lesions, Tissue Tropism and Host Responses following Experimental Infection of Egyptian Rousette Bats (

Author: Shannon G M, Kirejczyk, Brian R, Amman, Amy J, Schuh, Tara K, Sealy, César G, Albariño, Jian, Zhang, Corrie C, Brown, and Jonathan S, Towner
Subjects: Marburgvirus, Chiroptera, DNA Viruses, Animals, Paramyxovirinae, Viruses, Unclassified, Antigens, Viral, Tropism
Abstract: Ecological and experimental infection studies have identified Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs
Published: 2022

24. Histopathology and localization of SARS-CoV-2 and its host cell entry receptor ACE2 in tissues from naturally infected US-farmed mink (

Author: Jana M, Ritter, Tais M, Wilson, Joy M, Gary, Josilene N, Seixas, Roosecelis B, Martines, Julu, Bhatnagar, Brigid C, Bollweg, Elizabeth, Lee, Lindsey, Estetter, Luciana, Silva-Flannery, Hannah A, Bullock, Jonathan S, Towner, Caitlin M, Cossaboom, Natalie M, Wendling, Brian R, Amman, Robert R, Harvey, Dean, Taylor, Hannah, Rettler, Casey, Barton Behravesh, and Sherif R, Zaki
Subjects: Mink, SARS-CoV-2, Macrophages, Alveolar, Animals, COVID-19, Epithelial Cells, Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2, Virus Internalization, Lung
Abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes respiratory disease in mink similar to human COVID-19. We characterized the pathological findings in 72 mink from US farms with SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks, localized SARS-CoV-2 and its host cellular receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in mink respiratory tissues, and evaluated the utility of various test methods and specimens for SARS-CoV-2 detection in necropsy tissues. Of SARS-CoV-2-positive animals found dead, 74% had bronchiolitis and diffuse alveolar damage (DAD). Of euthanized SARS-CoV-2-positive animals, 72% had only mild interstitial pneumonia or minimal nonspecific lung changes (congestion, edema, macrophages); similar findings were seen in SARS-CoV-2-negative animals. Suppurative rhinitis, lymphocytic perivascular inflammation in the lungs, and lymphocytic infiltrates in other tissues were common in both SARS-CoV-2-positive and SARS-CoV-2-negative animals. In formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) upper respiratory tract (URT) specimens, conventional reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (cRT-PCR) was more sensitive than in situ hybridization (ISH) or immunohistochemistry (IHC) for detection of SARS-CoV-2. FFPE lung specimens yielded less detection of virus than FFPE URT specimens by all test methods. By IHC and ISH, virus localized extensively to epithelial cells in the nasal turbinates, and prominently within intact epithelium; olfactory mucosa was mostly spared. The SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 was extensively detected by IHC within turbinate epithelium, with decreased detection in lower respiratory tract epithelium and alveolar macrophages. This study expands on the knowledge of the pathology and pathogenesis of natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in mink and supports their further investigation as a potential animal model of SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans.
Published: 2022

25. Characterization of Bombali Virus, a New Bat Filovirus

Author: Laura McMullan, Mike Flint, M. Harley Jenks, Lisa W. Guerrero, Ayan K. Chakrabarti, Cynthia Goldsmith, Jonathan C. Guito, Tara K. Sealy, JoAnn D. Coleman-McCray, Stephen R. Welch, Jessica R. Spengler, Gustavo Palacios, Brian Bird, Tracey Goldstein, Jonna AK Mazet, Danielle Porter, Zachary A. Bornholdt, Larry Zeitlin, Sherif R. Zaki, Stuart T. Nichol, Joel M. Montgomery, Jonathan S. Towner, Christina F. Spiropoulou, and Cesar Albarino
Published: 2022
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26. 2020 taxonomic update for phylum Negarnaviricota (Riboviria: Orthornavirae), including the large orders Bunyavirales and Mononegavirales

Author: Amadou A. Sall, Christopher F. Basler, Gary P. Kobinger, Amy J. Lambert, Rodrigo Jardim, John V. da Graça, Yong-Zhen Zhang, Víctor Romanowski, Massimo Turina, John W. McCauley, Lin-Fa Wang, Paul A. Rota, Olga Dolnik, Juan Carlos de la Torre, Gabriele Neumann, Natalie J. Thornburg, Tomohide Natsuaki, Jin Won Song, Kartik Chandran, Carol D. Blair, Michael A. Drebot, Guohui Zhou, Rémi N. Charrel, Heather L. Wells, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Bernadett Pályi, Arnfinn Lodden Økland, Ian Crozier, Gael Kurath, Gilda B. Jonson, Robert R. Martin, Xuejie Yu, Anthony R. Fooks, Renato O. Resende, Ali Mirazimi, Bernadette G. van den Hoogen, Scott Adkins, Colin R. Parrish, Alexander Bukreyev, Anthony Griffiths, Timothy H. Hyndman, Peter Simmonds, Rachel Breyta, Zhìqiáng Wú, Ralf Dürrwald, Jorlan Fernandes, Biao Chen, Udo Hetzel, Alexandro Guterres, Jessica R. Spengler, Michael J. Buchmeier, Rayapati A. Naidu, Janusz T. Paweska, Keizō Tomonaga, Kamil Sarpkaya, Ivan V. Kuzmin, Jens H. Kuhn, Piet Maes, Marco Marklewitz, Masayuki Horie, Arvind Varsani, Shin-Yi Lee Marzano, Ursula J. Buchholz, Jean-Paul Gonzalez, Angelantonio Minafra, Daniela Alioto, Simon J. Anthony, Florian Pfaff, Brian H. Bird, Peter J. Walker, Robert A. Lamb, Noël Tordo, Rainer G. Ulrich, Sergio H. Marshall, Eric M. Leroy, Ayato Takada, Kirsten Spann, Xavier de Lamballerie, John M. Dye, Inmaculada Casas, Manuela Sironi, J. Christopher S. Clegg, Paul Brown, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Yan Liu, Márcio Roberto Teixeira Nunes, Tatjana Avšič-Županc, Martin Verbeek, Andrew J. Easton, Beatriz Navarro, Hideki Ebihara, Benhur Lee, Pierre Formenty, Qi Jin, Hideki Kondō, Eric Bergeron, Sébastien Massart, Daniel R. Perez, S. V. Alkhovsky, Charles H. Calisher, Anna Papa, Xīnglóu Yáng, José A. Navarro, Xifeng Wang, Taiyun Wei, Kim R. Blasdell, Lucie Dufkova, Renata Carvalho de Oliveira, Elba Regina Sampaio de Lemos, Nikos Vasilakis, Pedro Luis Ramos-González, Tong Zhang, Holly R. Hughes, Leonie Forth, Serpil Karadağ, F. Murilo Zerbini, Xueping Zhou, María Laura García, Tomáš Bartonička, Sandra Junglen, Aziz ul Rahman, Petra Straková, Karen E. Keller, William G. Dundon, Jiří Salát, Dexin Li, Jussi Hepojoki, Maria S. Salvato, Hui Wang, Justin Bahl, Bernd Hoffmann, Alberto M. R. Dávila, Jonathan S. Towner, Wénwén Liú, Mifang Liang, Yuri I. Wolf, Gaya K. Amarasinghe, Jianwei Wang, Alex Pauvolid-Corrêa, Anna Maria Vaira, Roy A. Hall, William Marciel de Souza, Thomas Briese, Felicity J. Burt, Valerian V. Dolja, Boris Klempa, Satu Hepojoki, Mengji Cao, Selma Gago-Zachert, Il-Ryong Choi, Rik L. de Swart, Jan Felix Drexler, Gabriel Robles Luna, Igor S. Lukashevich, Maria Minutolo, Amara Jambai, Nihal Buzkan, Steven B. Bradfute, Are Nylund, Ioannis E. Tzanetakis, Xiǎohóng Shí, Stephan Günther, Aura R. Garrison, Takahide Sasaya, Mart Krupovic, Victoria Wahl, Seiji Hongo, Matthew J. Ballinger, María A. Ayllón, Jonas Klingström, David M. Stone, Sead Sabanadzovic, Tracey Goldstein, George Fú Gāo, Aiah Gbakima, Norbert Nowotny, Vicente Pallás, Carina Andrea Reyes, W. Paul Duprex, Roger Hewson, Muhammad Zubair Shabbir, Sophie J. Smither, John V. Williams, Hans Peter Mühlbach, John Chamberlain, Yukio Shirako, Elke Mühlberger, Lies Laenen, Martin Beer, Jiànróng Lǐ, Giovanni P. Martelli, Gustavo Palacios, Sina Bavari, Natalya Yutin, Elena Dal Bó, Michele Digiaro, Jonathan A. Runstadler, John Hammond, Martin Schwemmle, Robert B. Tesh, Dirk Höper, Martin H. Groschup, Francesco Di Serio, Teemu Smura, Sheli R. Radoshitzky, Juliana Freitas-Astúa, Susan Payne, Dennis A. Bente, Anne Balkema-Buschmann, Adolfo García-Sastre, Eugene V. Koonin, Nicholas Di Paola, Bertus K. Rima, Mark D. Stenglein, Mohamed Hassan, Michela Chiumenti, Koray Ergünay, Patrick L. Di Bello, Ron A. M. Fouchier, Anna E. Whitfield, Toufic Elbeaino, Xin Yang, Nicole Mielke-Ehret, Jana Širmarová, Daniel Ruzek, Dàohóng Jiāng, Stanley L. Langevin, Sergey V. Netesov, Zhengli Shi, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases [Bethesda] (NIAID-NIH), National Institutes of Health [Bethesda] (NIH), Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort [ANSES], Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement et du travail (ANSES), Unité des Virus Emergents (UVE), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD)-Aix Marseille Université (AMU)-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Virologie des archées - Archaeal Virology, Institut Pasteur [Paris], Maladies infectieuses et vecteurs : écologie, génétique, évolution et contrôle (MIVEGEC), Université de Montpellier (UM)-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)-Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD [France-Sud]), Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Réseau International des Instituts Pasteur (RIIP), Centre collaborateur de l'OMS Arbovirus et Fièvres Hémorragiques virales - Stratégies antivirales (CC-OMS), Institut Pasteur de Guinée, Les Mandinaux, 16450 Le Grand Madieu, This work was supported in part through Laulima Government Solutions, LLC prime contract with the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) under Contract No. HHSN272201800013C. J.H.K. performed this work as an employee of Tunnell Government Services (TGS), a subcontractor of Laulima Government Solutions, LLC under Contract No. HHSN272201800013C. This project has been funded in whole or in part with federal funds from the National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), under Contract No. 75N91019D00024, Task Order No. 75N91019F00130 to I.C., who was supported by the Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick National Lab for Cancer Research, sponsored by NCI. This work was also funded in part by Contract No. HSHQDC-15-C-00064 awarded by the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) for the management and operation of The National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), a federally funded research and development center operated by the Battelle National Biodefense Institute (V.W.), and NIH contract HHSN272201000040I/HHSN27200004/D04 and grant R24AI120942 (N.V., R.B.T.). S.S. acknowledges partial support from the Special Research Initiative of Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station (MAFES), Mississippi State University, and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, US Department of Agriculture, Hatch Project 1021494., We thank W. Ian Lipkin and Rafal Tokarz (Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA) for providing/approving new names for 'blacklegged tick phleboviruses 1 and 3' and Edward Holmes (University of Sydney, Australia) for providing/approving a new name for 'Norway phlebovirus'. Many authors are current members of 2017-2020 International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Study Groups: Arenaviridae (Jens H. Kuhn, Michael J. Buchmeier, Rémi N. Charrel, J. Christopher S. Clegg, Juan Carlos de la Torre, Jean-Paul J. Gonzalez, Stephan Günther, Mark D. Stenglein, Jussi Hepojoki, Manuela Sironi, Igor S. Lukashevich, Sheli R. Radoshitzky, Víctor Romanowski, Maria S. Salvato), Artoviridae (Jens H. Kuhn, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Dàohóng Jiāng, Nikos Vasilakis), Aspiviridae (John V. da Graça, Elena Dal Bó, Selma Gago-Zachert, María Laura García, John Hammond, Tomohide Natsuaki, José A. Navarro, Vicente Pallás, Carina A. Reyes, Gabriel Robles Luna, Takahide Sasaya, Ioannis Tzanetakis, Anna Maria Vaira, Martin Verbeek), Bornaviridae (Jens H. Kuhn, Thomas Briese, Ralf Dürrwald, Masayuki Horie, Timothy H. Hyndman, Norbert Nowotny, Susan Payne, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Mark D. Stenglein, Keizō Tomonaga), Bunyavirales (Jens H. Kuhn, Scott Adkins, Juan Carlos de la Torre, Sandra Junglen, Amy J. Lambert, Piet Maes, Marco Marklewitz, Gustavo Palacios, Takahide Sasaya, Yong-Zhen Zhang), Filoviridae (Jens H. Kuhn, Gaya K. Amarasinghe, Christopher Basler, Sina Bavari, Alexander Bukreyev, Kartik Chandran, Ian Crozier, Olga Dolnik, John M. Dye, Pierre B. H. Formenty, Anthony Griffiths, Roger Hewson, Gary Kobinger, Eric M. Leroy, Elke Mühlberger, Sergey V. Netesov, Gustavo Palacios, Bernadett Pályi, Janusz T. Pawęska, Sophie Smither, Ayato Takada, Jonathan S. Towner, Victoria Wahl), Fimoviridae (Michele Digiaro, Toufic Elbeaino, Giovanni P. Martelli, Nicole Mielke-Ehret, Hans-Peter Mühlbach), Hantaviridae (Steven Bradfute, Charles H. Calisher, Boris Klempa, Jonas Klingström, Lies Laenen, Piet Maes, Jin-Won Song, Yong-Zhen Zhang), Jingchuvirales (Nicholas Di Paola), Monjiviricetes (Jens H. Kuhn, Ralf G. Dietzgen, W. Paul Duprex, Dàohóng Jiāng, Piet Maes, Janusz T. Pawęska, Bertus K. Rima, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Peter J. Walker, Yong-Zhen Zhang), Mymonaviridae (María A. Ayllón, Dàohóng Jiāng, Shin-Yi L. Marzano), Nairoviridae (Jens H. Kuhn, Sergey V. Alkhovsky, Tatjana Avšič-Županc, Dennis A. Bente, Éric Bergeron, Felicity Burt, Nicholas Di Paola, Koray Ergünay, Aura R. Garrison, Roger Hewson, Ali Mirazimi, Gustavo Palacios, Anna Papa, Amadou Alpha Sall, Jessica R. Spengler), Negarnaviricota (Jens H. Kuhn, Eugene V. Koonin, Mart Krupovic, Yuri I. Wolf), Nyamiviridae (Jens H. Kuhn, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Dàohóng Jiāng, Nikos Vasilakis), Orthomyxoviridae (Justin Bahl, Inmaculada Casas, Adolfo García-Sastre, Seiji Hongo, Sergio H. Marshall, John W. McCauley, Gabriele Neumann, Colin R. Parrish, Daniel R. Pérez, Jonathan A. Runstadler, Martin Schwemmle), Paramyxoviridae (Anne Balkema-Buschmann, William G. Dundon, W. Paul Duprex, Andrew J. Easton, Ron Fouchier, Gael Kurath, Benhur Lee, Bertus K. Rima, Paul Rota, Lin-Fa Wang, Robobert A. Lamb), Peribunyaviridae (Scott Adkins, Sergey V. Alkhovsky, Martin Beer, Carol D. Blair, Charles H. Calisher, Michael A. Drebot, Holly R. Hughes, Amy J. Lambert, William Marciel de Souza, Marco Marklewitz, Márcio R. T. Nunes, Xiǎohóng Shí), Phasmaviridae (Matthew J. Ballinger, Roy A. Hall, Sandra Junglen, Stanley L. Langevin, Alex Pauvolid-Corrêa), Phenuiviridae (Thomas Briese, Rémi N. Charrel, Xavier De Lamballerie, Hideki Ebihara, George Fú Gāo, Martin H. Groschup, Márcio R. T. Nunes, Gustavo Palacios, Takahide Sasaya, Jin-Won Song), Pneumoviridae (Paul A. Brown, Ursula J. Buchholz, Rik L. de Swart, Jan Felix Drexler, W. Paul Duprex, Andrew J. Easton, Jiànróng Lǐ, Kirsten Spann, Natalie J. Thornburg, Bernadette van den Hoogen, John V. Williams), Rhabdoviridae (Kim R. Blasdell, Rachel Breyta, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Anthony R. Fooks, Juliana Freitas-Astúa, Hideki Kondō, Gael Kurath, Ivan V. Kuzmin, David M. Stone, Robert B. Tesh, Noël Tordo, Nikos Vasilakis, Peter J. Walker, Anna E. Whitfield), Sunviridae (Timothy H. Hyndman, Gael Kurath), Tenuivirus (Il-Ryong Choi, Gilda B. Jonson, Takahide Sasaya, Yukio Shirako, Tàiyún Wèi, Xueping Zhou), and Tospoviridae (Scott Adkins, Amy J. Lambert, Rayapati Naidu, Renato O. Resende, Massimo Turina, Anna E. Whitfield), or are ICTV Executive Committee Members: the 2017–2020 ICTV Chair of the Fungal and Protist Viruses Subcommittee (Peter Simmonds), the 2018–2020 ICTV Proposal Secretary (Peter J. Walker), the 2017–2020 ICTV Chair of the Plant Viruses Subcommittee (F. Murilo Zerbini), the 2017–2020 ICTV Chair of the Animal dsRNA and ssRNA- Viruses Subcommittee (Jens H. Kuhn), and 2017–2020 Elected Members (Sead Sabanadzovic, Arvind Varsani). We would like to thank Anya Crane (NIH/NIAID/DCR/IRF-Frederick) for critically editing the manuscript., NIH - National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) (Estados Unidos), NIH - National Cancer Institute (NCI) (Estados Unidos), United State Department of Homeland Security (Estados Unidos), National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC) (Estados Unidos), Battelle National Biodefense Institute, Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station (MAFES) (Estados Unidos), Mississippi State University (Estados Unidos), United States Department of Agriculture. National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Institut Pasteur [Paris] (IP), Virology, H Kuhn, Jen, Adkins, Scott, Alioto, Daniela, V Alkhovsky, Sergey, K Amarasinghe, Gaya, J Anthony, Simon, Avšič-Županc, Tatjana, A Ayllón, María, Bahl, Justin, Balkema-Buschmann, Anne, J Ballinger, Matthew, Bartonička, Tomáš, Basler, Christopher, Bavari, Sina, Beer, Martin, A Bente, Denni, Bergeron, Éric, H Bird, Brian, Blair, Carol, R Blasdell, Kim, B Bradfute, Steven, Breyta, Rachel, Briese, Thoma, A Brown, Paul, J Buchholz, Ursula, J Buchmeier, Michael, Bukreyev, Alexander, Burt, Felicity, Buzkan, Nihal, H Calisher, Charle, Cao, Mengji, Casas, Inmaculada, Chamberlain, John, Chandran, Kartik, N Charrel, Rémi, Chen, Biao, Chiumenti, Michela, Choi, Il-Ryong, S Clegg, J Christopher, Crozier, Ian, V da Graça, John, Dal Bó, Elena, R Dávila, Alberto M, Carlos de la Torre, Juan, de Lamballerie, Xavier, L de Swart, Rik, L Di Bello, Patrick, Di Paola, Nichola, Di Serio, Francesco, G Dietzgen, Ralf, Digiaro, Michele, V Dolja, Valerian, Dolnik, Olga, A Drebot, Michael, Felix Drexler, Jan, Dürrwald, Ralf, Dufkova, Lucie, G Dundon, William, Paul Duprex, W, M Dye, John, J Easton, Andrew, Ebihara, Hideki, Elbeaino, Toufic, Ergünay, Koray, Fernandes, Jorlan, R Fooks, Anthony, H Formenty, Pierre B, F Forth, Leonie, M Fouchier, Ron A, Freitas-Astúa, Juliana, Gago-Zachert, Selma, Fú Gāo, George, Laura García, María, García-Sastre, Adolfo, R Garrison, Aura, Gbakima, Aiah, Goldstein, Tracey, J Gonzalez, Jean-Paul, Griffiths, Anthony, H Groschup, Martin, Günther, Stephan, Guterres, Alexandro, A Hall, Roy, Hammond, John, Hassan, Mohamed, Hepojoki, Jussi, Hepojoki, Satu, Hetzel, Udo, Hewson, Roger, Hoffmann, Bernd, Hongo, Seiji, Höper, Dirk, Horie, Masayuki, R Hughes, Holly, H Hyndman, Timothy, Jambai, Amara, Jardim, Rodrigo, Jiāng, Dàohóng, Jin, Qi, B Jonson, Gilda, Junglen, Sandra, Karadağ, Serpil, E Keller, Karen, Klempa, Bori, Klingström, Jona, Kobinger, Gary, Kondō, Hideki, V Koonin, Eugene, Krupovic, Mart, Kurath, Gael, V Kuzmin, Ivan, Laenen, Lie, A Lamb, Robert, J Lambert, Amy, L Langevin, Stanley, Lee, Benhur, S Lemos, Elba R, M Leroy, Eric, Li, Dexin, Lǐ, Jiànróng, Liang, Mifang, Liú, Wénwén, Liú, Yàn, S Lukashevich, Igor, Maes, Piet, Marciel de Souza, William, Marklewitz, Marco, H Marshall, Sergio, P Martelli, Giovanni, R Martin, Robert, L Marzano, Shin-Yi, Massart, Sébastien, W McCauley, John, Mielke-Ehret, Nicole, Minafra, Angelantonio, Minutolo, Maria, Mirazimi, Ali, Mühlbach, Hans-Peter, Mühlberger, Elke, Naidu, Rayapati, Natsuaki, Tomohide, Navarro, Beatriz, A Navarro, José, V Netesov, Sergey, Neumann, Gabriele, Nowotny, Norbert, T Nunes, Márcio R, Nylund, Are, L Økland, Arnfinn, C Oliveira, Renata, Palacios, Gustavo, Pallas, Vicente, Pályi, Bernadett, Papa, Anna, R Parrish, Colin, Pauvolid-Corrêa, Alex, T Pawęska, Janusz, Payne, Susan, R Pérez, Daniel, Pfaff, Florian, R Radoshitzky, Sheli, Rahman, Aziz-Ul, L Ramos-González, Pedro, O Resende, Renato, A Reyes, Carina, K Rima, Bertu, Romanowski, Víctor, Robles Luna, Gabriel, Rota, Paul, Rubbenstroth, Denni, A Runstadler, Jonathan, Ruzek, Daniel, Sabanadzovic, Sead, Salát, Jiří, Alpha Sall, Amadou, S Salvato, Maria, Sarpkaya, Kamil, Sasaya, Takahide, Schwemmle, Martin, Z Shabbir, Muhammad, Shí, Xiǎohóng, Shí, Zhènglì, Shirako, Yukio, Simmonds, Peter, Širmarová, Jana, Sironi, Manuela, Smither, Sophie, Smura, Teemu, Song, Jin-Won, M Spann, Kirsten, R Spengler, Jessica, D Stenglein, Mark, M Stone, David, Straková, Petra, Takada, Ayato, B Tesh, Robert, J Thornburg, Natalie, Tomonaga, Keizō, Tordo, Noël, S Towner, Jonathan, Turina, Massimo, Tzanetakis, Ioanni, G Ulrich, Rainer, Maria Vaira, Anna, van den Hoogen, Bernadette, Varsani, Arvind, Vasilakis, Niko, Verbeek, Martin, Wahl, Victoria, J Walker, Peter, Wang, Hui, Wang, Jianwei, Wang, Xifeng, Wang, Lin-Fa, Wèi, Tàiyún, Wells, Heather, E Whitfield, Anna, V Williams, John, I Wolf, Yuri, Wú, Zhìqiáng, Yang, Xin, Yáng, Xīnglóu, Yu, Xuejie, Yutin, Natalya, Murilo Zerbini, F, Zhang, Tong, Zhang, Yong-Zhen, Zhou, Guohui, and Zhou., Xueping
Subjects: Species complex, MESH: Terminology as Topic, Biología, VÍRUS DE RNA, Biology, Article, 03 medical and health sciences, Biointeractions and Plant Health, V?rus / classifica??o, MESH: Mononegavirales, Genus, Virology, Terminology as Topic, Life Science, Bunyavirales, Ciencias Exactas, Taxonomy, 030304 developmental biology, Order Mononegavirales, 0303 health sciences, 030306 microbiology, Phylum, General Medicine, 15. Life on land, Negarnaviricota, Filogenia, Taxon, Evolutionary biology, [SDV.MP.VIR]Life Sciences [q-bio]/Microbiology and Parasitology/Virology, Taxonomy (biology), Mononegavirales
Abstract: In March 2020, following the annual International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) ratification vote on newly proposed taxa, the phylum Negarnaviricota was amended and emended. At the genus rank, 20 new genera were added, two were deleted, one was moved, and three were renamed. At the species rank, 160 species were added, four were deleted, ten were moved and renamed, and 30 species were renamed. This article presents the updated taxonomy of Negarnaviricota as now accepted by the ICTV., La lista completa de autores que integran el documento puede consultarse en el archivo., Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales, Centro de Investigaciones en Fitopatología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Instituto de Biotecnologia y Biologia Molecular
Published: 2020
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27. Marburg Virus Persistence on Fruit as a Plausible Route of Bat to Primate Filovirus Transmission

Author: Jonathan S. Towner, Brian R. Amman, César G. Albariño, and Amy J. Schuh
Subjects: Persistence (psychology), Primates, Rousettus aegyptiacus, viruses, Egyptian rousette bat, bat, reservoirs, fluorescent ZsGreen1, Microbiology, Viral Zoonoses, Article, law.invention, Marburg virus, viral persistence, law, Virology, biology.animal, Chiroptera, Animals, Humans, Primate, Africa South of the Sahara, transmission, zoonoses, high-consequence viruses, Disease Reservoirs, biology, Primate Diseases, food and beverages, QR1-502, Infectious Diseases, Transmission (mechanics), Marburgvirus, Fruit
Abstract: Marburg virus (MARV), the causative agent of Marburg virus disease, emerges sporadically in sub-Saharan Africa and is often fatal in humas. The natural reservoir for this zoonotic virus is the frugivorous Egyptian rousette bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) that when infected, sheds virus in the highest amounts in oral secretions and urine. Being fruit bats, these animals forage nightly for ripened fruit throughout the year, including those types often preferred by humans. During feeding, they continually discard partially eaten fruit on the ground that could then be consumed by other Marburg virus susceptible animals or humans. In this study, using qRT-PCR and virus isolation, we tested fruit discarded by Egyptian rousette bats experimentally infected with a natural bat isolate of Marburg virus. We then separately tested viral persistence on fruit varieties commonly cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa using a recombinant Marburg virus expressing the fluorescent ZsGreen1. Marburg virus RNA was repeatedly detected on fruit in the food bowls of the infected bats and viable MARV was recovered from inoculated fruit for up to 6 h.
Published: 2021

28. An Opportunistic Survey Reveals an Unexpected Coronavirus Diversity Hotspot in North America

Author: Dean Taylor, Casey Barton Behravesh, Caitlin M. Cossaboom, Mary Lea Killian, Hon S. Ip, Jonathan S. Towner, David S. Blehert, Natalie Wendling, Megan E. Winzeler, Thomas J. DeLiberto, R Reid Harvey, Mia Kim Torchetti, Hannah Rettler, Kathryn M. Griffin, Susan A. Shriner, Brian R. Amman, and Jeffrey D Messer
Subjects: Male, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), animal diseases, viruses, coronavirus, Zoology, Animals, Wild, medicine.disease_cause, Microbiology, Alphacoronavirus, Article, Mice, Utah, Virology, biology.animal, Pandemic, medicine, Animals, Mink, mink farm, Coronavirus, biology, SARS-CoV-2, pandemic, Zoonosis, mink, COVID-19, Outbreak, virus diseases, zoonosis, medicine.disease, biology.organism_classification, QR1-502, Disease Hotspot, Infectious Diseases, One Health, Animals, Domestic, Cats, Female, Raccoons, Mephitidae, spill-over
Abstract: In summer 2020, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was detected on mink farms in Utah. An interagency One Health response was initiated to assess the extent of the outbreak and included sampling animals from on or near affected mink farms and testing them for SARS-CoV-2 and non-SARS coronaviruses. Among the 365 animals sampled, including domestic cats, mink, rodents, raccoons, and skunks, 261 (72%) of the animals harbored at least one coronavirus. Among the samples that could be further characterized, 127 alphacoronaviruses and 88 betacoronaviruses (including 74 detections of SARS-CoV-2 in mink) were identified. Moreover, at least 10% (n = 27) of the coronavirus-positive animals were found to be co-infected with more than one coronavirus. Our findings indicate an unexpectedly high prevalence of coronavirus among the domestic and wild free-roaming animals tested on mink farms. These results raise the possibility that mink farms could be potential hot spots for future trans-species viral spillover and the emergence of new pandemic coronaviruses.
Published: 2021
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29. Antibody-Mediated Virus Neutralization Is Not a Universal Mechanism of Marburg, Ebola, or Sosuga Virus Clearance in Egyptian Rousette Bats

Author: Stuart T. Nichol, Markus H Kainulainen, Amy J. Schuh, Ayan K. Chakrabarti, Jonathan S. Towner, Brian R. Amman, César G. Albariño, Lisa Wiggleton Guerrero, and Tara K. Sealy
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, viruses, Virus Neutralization, Biology, Antibodies, Viral, medicine.disease_cause, Article, Virus, Neutralization, Marburg virus, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Neutralization Tests, Chiroptera, Neutralization test, medicine, Animals, Humans, Immunology and Allergy, Marburg Virus Disease, Natural reservoir, 030212 general & internal medicine, Disease Reservoirs, Ebola virus, Convalescence, Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola, Ebolavirus, Virology, Immunity, Humoral, 030104 developmental biology, Infectious Diseases, Marburgvirus, Paramyxoviridae, biology.protein, Egypt, Antibody
Abstract: Although bats are increasingly being recognized as natural reservoir hosts of emerging zoonotic viruses, little is known about how they control and clear virus infection in the absence of clinical disease. Here, we test >50 convalescent sera from Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs) experimentally primed or prime-boosted with Marburg virus, Ebola virus, or Sosuga virus for the presence of virus-specific neutralizing antibodies, using infectious reporter viruses. After serum neutralization testing, we conclude that antibody-mediated virus neutralization does not contribute significantly to the control and clearance of Marburg virus, Ebola virus, or Sosuga virus infection in ERBs.
Published: 2018
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30. Subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) associated with Asian lineage Zika virus identified in three species of Ugandan bats (family Pteropodidae)

Author: Juliette Lewis, Teddy Nakayiki, Jonathan S. Towner, Megan R. Miller, Betty Nalikka, Anna C. Fagre, Eric C. Mossel, John R. Anderson, Tara K. Sealy, Julius J. Lutwama, Brian D. Foy, Luke Nyakarahuka, Robert Kityo, Rebekah C. Kading, Tony Schountz, and Brian R. Amman
Subjects: Male, 0301 basic medicine, Untranslated region, Viral epidemiology, Science, RNA Stability, viruses, 030231 tropical medicine, Viral transmission, Genome, Viral, Virus Replication, Arbovirus, Article, Zika virus, Viral reservoirs, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Chiroptera, Chlorocebus aethiops, medicine, Animals, Cell Lineage, Uganda, Vero Cells, Subgenomic mRNA, Ecological epidemiology, Multidisciplinary, biology, Zika Virus Infection, virus diseases, RNA, Zika Virus, biology.organism_classification, medicine.disease, Virology, Eidolon helvum, Flavivirus, 030104 developmental biology, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Medicine, RNA, Viral, Female, Molecular ecology, Rousettus
Abstract: Serological cross-reactivity among flaviviruses makes determining the prior arbovirus exposure of animals challenging in areas where multiple flavivirus strains are circulating. We hypothesized that prior infection with ZIKV could be confirmed through the presence of subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) of the 3′ untranslated region (UTR), which persists in tissues due to XRN-1 stalling during RNA decay. We amplified ZIKV sfRNA but not NS5 from three experimentally-infected Jamaican fruit bats, supporting the hypothesis of sfRNA tissue persistence. Applying this approach to 198 field samples from Uganda, we confirmed presence of ZIKV sfRNA, but not NS5, in four bats representing three species: Eidolon helvum (n = 2), Epomophorus labiatus (n = 1), and Rousettus aegyptiacus (n = 1). Amplified sequence was most closely related to Asian lineage ZIKV. Our results support the use of sfRNA as a means of identifying previous flavivirus infection and describe the first detection of ZIKV RNA in East African bats.
Published: 2021
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31. Correction to: 2021 Taxonomic update of phylum Negarnaviricota (Riboviria: Orthornavirae), including the large orders Bunyavirales and Mononegavirales

Author: Martin Schwemmle, S. V. Alkhovsky, Mark D. Stenglein, Jinguo Zhang, Shaohua Wen, Víctor Romanowski, Massimo Turina, Peter J. Walker, Baldwyn Torto, Paul A. Rota, Xavier de Lamballerie, Stuart G. Siddell, Noël Tordo, John M. Dye, Inmaculada Casas, Andrew J. Easton, Yasuhiro Tomitaka, Eugene V. Koonin, J. Christopher S. Clegg, Judith K. Brown, Kartik Chandran, Carol D. Blair, Shinya Tsuda, Tony L. Goldberg, Andrew J. Bennett, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Koray Ergünay, Aura R. Garrison, Jiang Hong, Kim R. Blasdell, Matthew J. Ballinger, Zuokun Yang, Manuela Sironi, Florian Hüttner, Timothy H. Hyndman, D. A. Patterson, Roy A. Hall, Eric M. Leroy, Liying Qi, Risto Jalkanen, Gary P. Kobinger, Yanxiang Wang, Michael A. Drebot, Emiliano Di Cicco, Martin H. Groschup, Amy K. Teffer, Thomas S. Postler, Sophie J. Smither, Ni Hong, Sina Bavari, Jamie Bojko, Amy Tabata, Michael J. Buchmeier, Sébastien Massart, Daniel R. Perez, Hironobu Yanagisawa, Janice Uchida, Xiǎohóng Shí, Marina Ciuffo, Jean-Paul Gonzalez, Brian H. Bird, Alejandro Olmedo-Velarde, Justin Bahl, Tao Hu, J. Felix Drexler, Gaya K. Amarasinghe, Jens H. Kuhn, Shaorong Li, Taiyun Wei, Sandra Junglen, José A. Navarro, Sofia Paraskevopoulou, Hans Peter Mühlbach, Nicholas Di Paola, Toufic Elbeaino, Guoping Wang, Song Zhang, Tong Han, Yukio Shirako, Pierre Formenty, Anthony R. Fooks, Lifeng Zhai, Benhur Lee, María Laura García, Dag-Ragnar Blystad, Bertus K. Rima, William G. Dundon, Hideki Ebihara, Jiangxiang Wu, John S. Hu, Gabriel Robles Luna, Jana Fránová, Maria S. Salvato, Norbert Nowotny, Carina Andrea Reyes, Kristina M. Miller, Eric Bergeron, Renato O. Resende, Holly R. Hughes, Victoria Wahl, Changchun Tu, Anna Papa, Roger Hewson, Anna Maria Vaira, Nicolás Bejerman, Alex Pauvolid-Corrêa, Seiji Hongo, Igor S. Lukashevich, Michael Kawate, Bernard R. Agwanda, Sead Sabanadzovic, Gideon J. Mordecai, Piet Maes, Steven B. Bradfute, Stephan Günther, Michele Digiaro, Tomio Usugi, Zhe Zhang, Adam C. Park, Guy Smagghe, Shin-Yi Lee Marzano, Kenji Kubota, Ioannis E. Tzanetakis, Christopher F. Basler, Rik L. de Swart, Yong-Zhen Zhang, Felicity J. Burt, Curtis A. Suttle, Mart Krupovic, Jussi Hepojoki, John W. McCauley, Jonathan S. Towner, Charles H. Calisher, Lei Xu, George Fú Gāo, Jonathan A. Runstadler, David M. Stone, Karia H. Kaukinen, Rachel Breyta, Masayuki Horie, Gael Kurath, Carmen Büttner, Lin-Fa Wang, Jessica R. Spengler, Olga Dolnik, Yuya Chiaki, Nicole Mielke-Ehret, Robert B. Tesh, Gustavo Palacios, Marco Chiapello, Tatjana Avšič-Županc, Martin Verbeek, Qi Cheng, Scott Adkins, Elena Dal Bó, Fujio Kadono, Selma Gago-Zachert, Sergio H. Marshall, Marta Vallino, Gilda B. Jonson, Jingjing Fu, Rosemary Sang, Takahide Sasaya, Amy J. Lambert, Paul Brown, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Dennis A. Bente, Colin R. Parrish, Jin Won Song, María A. Ayllón, Shigeharu Takeuchi, Arvind Varsani, Dàohóng Jiāng, Natalie J. Thornburg, Michael J. Melzer, Stanley L. Langevin, Igor Koloniuk, Mang Shi, John Hammond, Vicente Pallás, Thomas Briese, Amadou A. Sall, Jari Sugano, Sergey V. Netesov, Zhengli Shi, M. Ilyas, Yoshifumi Shimomoto, Wayne B. Borth, Anna E. Whitfield, Ayato Takada, Kirsten Spann, W. Paul Duprex, Marco Forgia, Jiro Wada, Susanne von Bargen, Rim Al Kubrusli, Tobi J. Ming, Gabriele Neumann, Rémi N. Charrel, Caixia Yang, Rayapati A. Naidu, Ralf Dürrwald, David P. Tchouassi, Ursula J. Buchholz, Carlotta Peracchio, Tomohide Natsuaki, Anthony Griffiths, Sheli R. Radoshitzky, Márcio Roberto Teixeira Nunes, Juliana Freitas-Astúa, Janusz T. Paweska, Humberto Debat, Francesco Di Serio, Stephanie Fürl, Susan Payne, Hugh W. Ferguson, Juan Carlos de la Torre, Keizō Tomonaga, Muhammad Waqas, Longhui Li, Elke Mühlberger, Bernadett Pályi, Lies Laenen, Ian Crozier, Yuri I. Wolf, Bernadette G. van den Hoogen, Martin Beer, Jiànróng Lǐ, Thomas Gaskin, Mengji Cao, Ali Mirazimi, F. Murilo Zerbini, Peter Simmonds, Anne Balkema-Buschmann, Adolfo García-Sastre, Hideki Kondō, William Marciel de Souza, Huazhen Liu, John V. Williams, Marco Marklewitz, Alexander Bukreyev, Luisa Rubino, Angela D. Schulze, Nolwenn M. Dheilly, Xueping Zhou, Nikos Vasilakis, Elliot J. Lefkowitz, Boris Klempa, Il-Ryong Choi, Yaqin Wang, and Jonas Klingström
Subjects: Biointeractions and Plant Health, biology, Phylum, Virology, Life Science, Bunyavirales, General Medicine, Mononegavirales, biology.organism_classification, Virology & Molecular Biology, Virologie & Moleculaire Biologie
Abstract: Unfortunately, the inclusion of original names (in non-Latin script) of the following authors caused problems with author name indexing in PubMed. Therefore, these original names were removed from XML data to correct the PubMed record. Mengji Cao, Yuya Chiaki, Hideki Ebihara, Jingjing Fu, George Fú Gāo, Tong Han, Jiang Hong, Ni Hong, Seiji Hongo, Masayuki Horie, Dàohóng Jiāng, Fujio Kadono, Hideki Kondō, Kenji Kubota, Shaorong Li, Longhui Li, Jiànróng Lǐ, Huazhen Liu, Tomohide Natsuaki, Sergey V. Netesov, Anna Papa, Sofia Paraskevopoulou, Liying Qi, Takahide Sasaya, Mang Shi, Xiǎohóng Shí, Zhènglì Shí, Yoshifumi Shimomoto, Jin‑Won Song, Ayato Takada, Shigeharu Takeuchi, Yasuhiro Tomitaka, Keizō Tomonaga, Shinya Tsuda, Changchun Tu, Tomio Usugi, Nikos Vasilakis, Jiro Wada, Lin‑Fa Wang, Guoping Wang, Yanxiang Wang, Yaqin Wang, Tàiyún Wèi, Shaohua Wen, Jiangxiang Wu, Lei Xu, Hironobu Yanagisawa, Caixia Yang, Zuokun Yang, Lifeng Zhai, Yong‑Zhen Zhang, Song Zhang, Jinguo Zhang, Zhe Zhang, Xueping Zhou. In addition, the publication call-out in the supplementary material was updated from issue 11 to issue 12. The original article has been corrected.
Published: 2021

32. Possibility for reverse zoonotic transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to free-ranging wildlife: A case study of bats

Author: Kendra L. Phelps, Rebekah C. Kading, Jonathan S. Towner, Tigga Kingston, Amy T. Gilbert, Kevin J. Olival, David T. S. Hayman, Jeremy T. H. Coleman, Ian H. Mendenhall, Hon S. Ip, Ralph S. Baric, H. E. Field, Jonathan H. Epstein, Winifred F. Frick, David S. Blehert, Kevin T. Castle, Christine K. Johnson, DeeAnn M. Reeder, Alison J. Peel, Raina K. Plowright, Jeffrey M. Lorch, Jonathan M. Sleeman, Cara E. Brook, Lin-Fa Wang, Paul M. Cryan, Jonathan D. Reichard, Daniel G. Streicker, Charles H. Calisher, William B. Karesh, Peter Daszak, Brian R. Amman, and Lakdawala, Seema
Subjects: RNA viruses, Viral Diseases, Coronaviruses, Epidemiology, viruses, Review, Wildlife, Medical Conditions, Spillover effect, Chiroptera, Pandemic, Bats, 2.2 Factors relating to the physical environment, Viral, Aetiology, Biology (General), Lung, Pathology and laboratory medicine, Mammals, 0303 health sciences, Genome, biology, Transmission (medicine), 030302 biochemistry & molecular biology, virus diseases, Eukaryota, Medical microbiology, Geography, Infectious Diseases, Veterinary Diseases, Medical Microbiology, Vertebrates, Viruses, SARS CoV 2, Pathogens, Infection, Coronavirus Infections, medicine.medical_specialty, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), SARS coronavirus, QH301-705.5, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), Immunology, Pneumonia, Viral, Wild, Animals, Wild, Genome, Viral, Microbiology, Host Specificity, 03 medical and health sciences, Betacoronavirus, Clinical Research, Environmental health, Virology, Genetics, medicine, Animals, Humans, Molecular Biology, Pandemics, 030304 developmental biology, Medicine and health sciences, SARS-CoV-2, Prevention, Public health, Organisms, Viral pathogens, COVID-19, Biology and Life Sciences, Covid 19, Pneumonia, RC581-607, biology.organism_classification, respiratory tract diseases, Microbial pathogens, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Medical Risk Factors, Amniotes, Parasitology, Veterinary Science, Immunologic diseases. Allergy, Zoology
Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the substantial public health, economic, and societal consequences of virus spillover from a wildlife reservoir. Widespread human transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) also presents a new set of challenges when considering viral spillover from people to naïve wildlife and other animal populations. The establishment of new wildlife reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2 would further complicate public health control measures and could lead to wildlife health and conservation impacts. Given the likely bat origin of SARS-CoV-2 and related beta-coronaviruses (β-CoVs), free-ranging bats are a key group of concern for spillover from humans back to wildlife. Here, we review the diversity and natural host range of β-CoVs in bats and examine the risk of humans inadvertently infecting free-ranging bats with SARS-CoV-2. Our review of the global distribution and host range of β-CoV evolutionary lineages suggests that 40+ species of temperate-zone North American bats could be immunologically naïve and susceptible to infection by SARS-CoV-2. We highlight an urgent need to proactively connect the wellbeing of human and wildlife health during the current pandemic and to implement new tools to continue wildlife research while avoiding potentially severe health and conservation impacts of SARS-CoV-2 "spilling back" into free-ranging bat populations.
Published: 2020

33. Novel activities by ebolavirus and marburgvirus interferon antagonists revealed using a standardized in vitro reporter system

Author: César G. Albariño, Jonathan S. Towner, Ayan K. Chakrabarti, and Jonathan C. Guito
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, Virulence, Biology, medicine.disease_cause, Marburg virus, 03 medical and health sciences, Viral Proteins, VP40, Interferon, Marburg virus disease, Genes, Reporter, Virology, medicine, Animals, Humans, Marburg Virus Disease, Ebolavirus, Ebola virus, Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola, Marburgvirus, biology.organism_classification, 030104 developmental biology, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Interferons, medicine.drug
Abstract: Filoviruses are highly lethal in humans and nonhuman primates, likely due to potent antagonism of host interferon (IFN) responses early in infection. Filoviral protein VP35 is implicated as the major IFN induction antagonist, while Ebola virus (EBOV) VP24 or Marburg virus (MARV) VP40 are known to block downstream IFN signaling. Despite progress elucidating EBOV and MARV antagonist function, those for most other filoviruses, including Reston (RESTV), Sudan (SUDV), Tai Forest (TAFV), Bundibugyo (BDBV) and Ravn (RAVV) viruses, remain largely neglected. Thus, using standardized vectors and reporter assays, we characterized activities by each IFN antagonist from all known ebolavirus and marburgvirus species side-by-side. We uncover noncanonical suppression of IFN induction by ebolavirus VP24, differing potencies by MARV and RAVV proteins, and intriguingly, weaker antagonism by VP24 of RESTV. These underlying molecular explanations for differential virulence in humans could guide future investigations of more-neglected filoviruses as well as treatment and vaccine studies.
Published: 2017
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34. Isolation of Angola-like Marburg virus from Egyptian rousette bats from West Africa

Author: Victoria Ontiveros, Samuel Maxwell Tom Williams, Stuart T. Nichol, Alexandra Gibson, Osman Kanu, Camilla Bangura, Aiah Lebbie, Fatmata V. Bairoh, Immah Conteh, Tracey Goldstein, Jonathan Musa, Victor Lungai, Mohamed Turay, James Graziano, Alexandre Tremeau-Bravard, Ketan Patel, Willie Robert, Joseph A. Turay, Aiah Gbakima, Doris Bangura, Ibrahim A. Bakarr, Amy J. Schuh, Tushar Singh, Emmanuel Amara, Brian R. Amman, Abdulai A. Bangura, James Bangura, Moinya Coomber, Marilyn Kanu, Lavalie Edwin, Jonathan S. Towner, Alusine H. Koroma, Celine H. Taboy, Augustus Osborne, Emmanuel Saidu, Sorie Kamara, Amara Jambai, Richard A. Wadsworth, Raoul Emeric Guetiya Wadoum, Jonathan Johnny, Jonna A. K. Mazet, Vanessa Mereweather-Thompson, Manjunatha N. Belaganahalli, Ibrahim Foday, Andrew Chow, Dickson Kargbo, Jasjeet K. Dhanota, Emmanuel S. Kamanda, Tara K. Sealy, and Brian H. Bird
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, General Physics and Astronomy, Diseases, Marburg virus disease, Chiroptera, Marburg Virus Disease, Viral, lcsh:Science, Phylogeny, Likelihood Functions, Genome, Multidisciplinary, biology, Geography, Ecology, Africa, Western, Caves, Infectious Diseases, Infection, Sequence Analysis, Western, Isolation (health care), Science, 030106 microbiology, Zoology, Genome, Viral, General Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Article, Sierra leone, Marburg virus, 03 medical and health sciences, Viral Proteins, parasitic diseases, Animals, Natural reservoir, Prevention, Outbreak, DNA, General Chemistry, Sequence Analysis, DNA, biology.organism_classification, Marburgvirus, Emerging Infectious Diseases, Good Health and Well Being, 030104 developmental biology, Africa, lcsh:Q, Rousettus
Abstract: Marburg virus (MARV) causes sporadic outbreaks of severe Marburg virus disease (MVD). Most MVD outbreaks originated in East Africa and field studies in East Africa, South Africa, Zambia, and Gabon identified the Egyptian rousette bat (ERB; Rousettus aegyptiacus) as a natural reservoir. However, the largest recorded MVD outbreak with the highest case–fatality ratio happened in 2005 in Angola, where direct spillover from bats was not shown. Here, collaborative studies by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Njala University, University of California, Davis USAID-PREDICT, and the University of Makeni identify MARV circulating in ERBs in Sierra Leone. PCR, antibody and virus isolation data from 1755 bats of 42 species shows active MARV infection in approximately 2.5% of ERBs. Phylogenetic analysis identifies MARVs that are similar to the Angola strain. These results provide evidence of MARV circulation in West Africa and demonstrate the value of pathogen surveillance to identify previously undetected threats., Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs) are natural reservoirs for Marburg virus (MARV), but these bats have not been linked to the MARV Angola strain that caused the largest and deadliest outbreak on record. Here, Amman et al., in a multi-institutional surveillance effort, identify and isolate Angola-like MARV in ERBs in West Africa.
Published: 2019

35. Comparative analysis of serologic cross-reactivity using convalescent sera from filovirus-experimentally infected fruit bats

Author: Jonathan S. Towner, Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, Jonathan C. Guito, Timothy D. Flietstra, Tara S. Sealy, and Stuart T. Nichol
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, Male, Population, lcsh:Medicine, Filoviridae, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Cross Reactions, medicine.disease_cause, Antibodies, Viral, Article, Antibodies, Viral hemorrhagic fever, Serology, 03 medical and health sciences, Viral reservoirs, Ebola virus, Viral Proteins, 0302 clinical medicine, Chiroptera, medicine, Filoviridae Infections, Animals, Natural reservoir, lcsh:Science, education, Antigens, Viral, Marburg virus, Ebolavirus, education.field_of_study, Multidisciplinary, biology, Immune Sera, lcsh:R, Infectious-disease diagnostics, Age Factors, Marburgvirus, biology.organism_classification, medicine.disease, Virology, 030104 developmental biology, lcsh:Q, Female, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery
Abstract: With the exception of Reston and Bombali viruses, the marburgviruses and ebolaviruses (family Filoviridae) cause outbreaks of viral hemorrhagic fever in sub-Saharan Africa. The Egyptian rousette bat (ERB) is a natural reservoir host for the marburgviruses and evidence suggests that bats are also natural reservoirs for the ebolaviruses. Although the search for the natural reservoirs of the ebolaviruses has largely involved serosurveillance of the bat population, there are no validated serological assays to screen bat sera for ebolavirus-specific IgG antibodies. Here, we generate filovirus-specific antisera by prime-boost immunization of groups of captive ERBs with all seven known culturable filoviruses. After validating a system of filovirus-specific indirect ELISAs utilizing infectious-based virus antigens for detection of virus-specific IgG antibodies from bat sera, we assess the level of serological cross-reactivity between the virus-specific antisera and heterologous filovirus antigens. This data is then used to generate a filovirus antibody fingerprint that can predict which of the filovirus species in the system is most antigenically similar to the species responsible for past infection. Our filovirus IgG indirect ELISA system will be a critical tool for identifying bat species with high ebolavirus seroprevalence rates to target for longitudinal studies aimed at establishing natural reservoir host-ebolavirus relationships.
Published: 2019

36. Taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales: second update 2018

Author: Bernadette G. van den Hoogen, F. Murilo Zerbini, Susan Payne, Keizō Tomonaga, Mark D. Stenglein, Dàohóng Jiāng, Timothy H. Hyndman, Noël Tordo, John M. Dye, Anne Balkema-Buschmann, Bernadett Pályi, Ian Crozier, Sergey V. Netesov, Gael Kurath, Anthony Griffiths, Kim R. Blasdell, Alexander Bukreyev, Peter Simmonds, William G. Dundon, Olga Dolnik, Ron A. M. Fouchier, Paul Brown, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Anthony R. Fooks, Timothy Song, Rik L. de Swart, Gary P. Kobinger, Nikos Vasilakis, Victoria Wahl, Ralf Dürrwald, Ursula J. Buchholz, Robert B. Tesh, Jens H. Kuhn, Juliana Freitas-Astúa, Elodie Ghedin, Eric M. Leroy, María A. Ayllón, Ivan V. Kuzmin, Leslie L. Domier, Thomas Briese, Jan Felix Drexler, Hideki Kondō, David Wang, Gaya K. Amarasinghe, Bertus K. Rima, Gōngyín Yè, Gustavo Palacios, Ayato Takada, Kirsten Spann, Benhur Lee, Piet Maes, Sina Bavari, Christopher F. Basler, Yong-Zhen Zhang, Lin-Fa Wang, Janusz T. Paweska, Masayuki Horie, Qisheng Song, John V. Williams, Elke Mühlberger, Jiànróng Lǐ, Paul A. Rota, Norbert Nowotny, Kartik Chandran, Roger Hewson, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Anna E. Whitfield, Pierre Formenty, Julia L. Hurwitz, Sophie J. Smither, Shin-Yi Lee Marzano, W. Paul Duprex, Andrew J. Easton, Jonathan S. Towner, Robert A. Lamb, David M. Stone, Peter J. Walker, and Virology
Subjects: Order Mononegavirales, 0303 health sciences, 030306 microbiology, Biología, VÍRUS DE RNA, General Medicine, Biology, Virology, Article, 03 medical and health sciences, Evolutionary biology, Taxonomy (biology), Second update 2018, Mononegavirales, Phylogeny, 030304 developmental biology, Taxonomy
Abstract: In October 2018, the order Mononegavirales was amended by the establishment of three new families and three new genera, abolishment of two genera, and creation of 28 novel species. This article presents the updated taxonomy of the order Mon-onegavirales as now accepted by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).
Published: 2019

37. Clinical, Histopathologic, and Immunohistochemical Characterization of Experimental Marburg Virus Infection in A Natural Reservoir Host, the Egyptian Rousette Bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus)

Author: Megan E. B. Jones, JoAnn D. Coleman-McCray, Brian R. Amman, Amy J. Schuh, Timothy D. Flietstra, Stuart T. Nichol, Luke S. Uebelhoer, Jonathan S. Towner, Tara K. Sealy, Sherif R. Zaki, and Brian H. Bird
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, filovirus, animal diseases, viruses, 030106 microbiology, Rousettus aegyptiacus, lcsh:QR1-502, Egyptian rousette bat, Spleen, Biology, Virus, lcsh:Microbiology, Marburg virus, 03 medical and health sciences, Marburg virus disease, Virology, parasitic diseases, medicine, Natural reservoir, histopathologic, Marburgvirus, biology.organism_classification, natural reservoir, 030104 developmental biology, Infectious Diseases, medicine.anatomical_structure, Blood chemistry, immunohistochemical, Ravn virus
Abstract: Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) are natural reservoir hosts of Marburg virus (MARV), and Ravn virus (RAVV, collectively called marburgviruses) and have been linked to human cases of Marburg virus disease (MVD). We investigated the clinical and pathologic effects of experimental MARV infection in Egyptian rousettes through a serial euthanasia study and found clear evidence of mild but transient disease. Three groups of nine, captive-born, juvenile male bats were inoculated subcutaneously with 10,000 TCID50 of Marburg virus strain Uganda 371Bat2007, a minimally passaged virus originally isolated from a wild Egyptian rousette. Control bats (n = 3) were mock-inoculated. Three animals per day were euthanized at 3, 5&ndash, 10, 12 and 28 days post-inoculation (DPI), controls were euthanized at 28 DPI. Blood chemistry analyses showed a mild, statistically significant elevation in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) at 3, 6 and 7 DPI. Lymphocyte and monocyte counts were mildly elevated in inoculated bats after 9 DPI. Liver histology revealed small foci of inflammatory infiltrate in infected bats, similar to lesions previously described in wild, naturally-infected bats. Liver lesion severity scores peaked at 7 DPI, and were correlated with both ALT and hepatic viral RNA levels. Immunohistochemical staining detected infrequent viral antigen in liver (3&ndash, 8 DPI, n = 8), spleen (3&ndash, 7 DPI, n = 8), skin (inoculation site, 3&ndash, 12 DPI, n = 20), lymph nodes (3&ndash, 10 DPI, n = 6), and oral submucosa (8&ndash, 9 DPI, n = 2). Viral antigen was present in histiocytes, hepatocytes and mesenchymal cells, and in the liver, antigen staining co-localized with inflammatory foci. These results show the first clear evidence of very mild disease caused by a filovirus in a reservoir bat host and provide support for our experimental model of this virus-reservoir host system.
Published: 2019

38. Discovery and Characterization of Bukakata orbivirus (

Author: Anna C, Fagre, Justin S, Lee, Robert M, Kityo, Nicholas A, Bergren, Eric C, Mossel, Teddy, Nakayiki, Betty, Nalikka, Luke, Nyakarahuka, Amy T, Gilbert, Julian Kerbis, Peterhans, Mary B, Crabtree, Jonathan S, Towner, Brian R, Amman, Tara K, Sealy, Amy J, Schuh, Stuart T, Nichol, Julius J, Lutwama, Barry R, Miller, and Rebekah C, Kading
Subjects: Whole Genome Sequencing, bat, Genome, Viral, Sequence Analysis, DNA, Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction, Virus Replication, Reoviridae, Article, Cell Line, orbivirus, Open Reading Frames, Viral Proteins, arbovirus, Chiroptera, Chlorocebus aethiops, surveillance, Animals, RNA, Viral, next-generation sequencing, Vero Cells, Phylogeny, Disease Reservoirs
Abstract: While serological and virological evidence documents the exposure of bats to medically-important arboviruses, their role as reservoirs or amplifying hosts is less well-characterized. We describe a novel orbivirus (Reoviridae:Orbivirus) isolated from an Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus leachii) trapped in 2013 in Uganda and named Bukakata orbivirus. This is the fifth orbivirus isolated from a bat, however genetic information had previously only been available for one bat-associated orbivirus. We performed whole-genome sequencing on Bukakata orbivirus and three other bat-associated orbiviruses (Fomede, Ife, and Japanaut) to assess their phylogenetic relationship within the genus Orbivirus and develop hypotheses regarding potential arthropod vectors. Replication kinetics were assessed for Bukakata orbivirus in three different vertebrate cell lines. Lastly, qRT-PCR and nested PCR were used to determine the prevalence of Bukakata orbivirus RNA in archived samples from three populations of Egyptian fruit bats and one population of cave-associated soft ticks in Uganda. Complete coding sequences were obtained for all ten segments of Fomede, Ife, and Japanaut orbiviruses and for nine of the ten segments for Bukakata orbivirus. Phylogenetic analysis placed Bukakata and Fomede in the tick-borne orbivirus clade and Ife and Japanaut within the Culicoides/phlebotomine sandfly orbivirus clade. Further, Bukakata and Fomede appear to be serotypes of the Chobar Gorge virus species. Bukakata orbivirus replicated to high titers (106–107 PFU/mL) in Vero, BHK-21 [C-13], and R06E (Egyptian fruit bat) cells. Preliminary screening of archived bat and tick samples do not support Bukakata orbivirus presence in these collections, however additional testing is warranted given the phylogenetic associations observed. This study provided complete coding sequence for several bat-associated orbiviruses and in vitro characterization of a bat-associated orbivirus. Our results indicate that bats may play an important role in the epidemiology of viruses in the genus Orbivirus and further investigation is warranted into vector-host associations and ongoing surveillance efforts.
Published: 2019

39. Taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales: update 2019

Author: Anthony R. Fooks, Anthony Griffiths, Yong-Zhen Zhang, Ana Moreno, Lin-Fa Wang, Thomas Briese, Jan Felix Drexler, Chiara Chiapponi, W. Paul Duprex, Elke Mühlberger, Mark D. Stenglein, Yīmíng Bào, Noël Tordo, Gael Kurath, John M. Dye, E. W. Kitajima, David M. Stone, F. Murilo Zerbini, Eric M. Leroy, Jiànróng Lǐ, Camila Chabi-Jesus, Keizō Tomonaga, Juliana Freitas-Astúa, Kim R. Blasdell, Alexander Bukreyev, Gustavo Palacios, Tāo Zhāng, Pierre Formenty, Shin-Yi Lee Marzano, Peter Simmonds, Olga Dolnik, William G. Dundon, Sina Bavari, Gaya K. Amarasinghe, Sophie J. Smither, Janusz T. Paweska, Mǎng Shī, Masayuki Horie, Ayato Takada, Kirsten Spann, Arnfinn Lodden Økland, Christopher F. Basler, Benhur Lee, Robert B. Tesh, Alice Prosperi, Rik L. de Swart, Norbert Nowotny, Are Nylund, Roger Hewson, Victoria Wahl, Bernadette G. van den Hoogen, Piet Maes, Ralf Dürrwald, Bertus K. Rima, Jens H. Kuhn, Antonio Lavazza, Peter J. Walker, Paul A. Rota, Kartik Chandran, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Susan Payne, Robert A. Lamb, Anne Balkema-Buschmann, Andrew J. Easton, John V. Williams, Jonathan S. Towner, Enrica Sozzi, Paul Brown, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Bernadett Pályi, Ian Crozier, Hideki Kondō, Ursula J. Buchholz, Ron A. M. Fouchier, Nikos Vasilakis, Pedro Luis Ramos-González, Davide Lelli, Ivan V. Kuzmin, Dàohóng Jiāng, Sergey V. Netesov, Gary P. Kobinger, Timothy H. Hyndman, María A. Ayllón, Anna E. Whitfield, and Virology
Subjects: Order Mononegavirales, 0303 health sciences, 030306 microbiology, Biología, General Medicine, Genome, Viral, Biology, Virology, Article, MONONEGAVIRALES, 03 medical and health sciences, Taxon, Evolutionary biology, RNA, Viral, Taxonomy (biology), Ratification, Mononegavirales, 030304 developmental biology
Abstract: In February 2019, following the annual taxon ratification vote, the order Mononegavirales was amended by the addition of four new subfamilies and 12 new genera and the creation of 28 novel species. This article presents the updated taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales as now accepted by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). publishedVersion
Published: 2019

40. Genomic features of humoral immunity support tolerance model in Egyptian rousette bats

Author: Jeffrey R. Kugelman, Jonathan S. Towner, Peter A. Larson, Karla Garcia, Maggie L. Bartlett, Anne Balkema-Buschmann, Joseph A. Chitty, Mariano Sanchez-Lockhart, and Gustavo Palacios
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, QH301-705.5, Fc receptor, General Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Virus, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Chiroptera, Animals, Biology (General), Gene, Genetics, pentraxins, tolerance, biology, Pentraxins, Fc receptors, Repertoire, Genomics, Marburgvirus, biology.organism_classification, Immunity, Humoral, antiviral immunity, 030104 developmental biology, immunoglobulin heavy chain locus, Models, Animal, Humoral immunity, biology.protein, Egypt, Antibody, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery
Abstract: Summary: Bats asymptomatically harbor many viruses that can cause severe human diseases. The Egyptian rousette bat (ERB) is the only known reservoir for Marburgviruses and Sosuga virus, making it an exceptional animal model to study antiviral mechanisms in an asymptomatic host. With this goal in mind, we constructed and annotated the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus, finding an expansion on immunoglobulin variable genes associated with protective human antibodies to different viruses. We also annotated two functional and distinct immunoglobulin epsilon genes and four distinctive functional immunoglobulin gamma genes. We described the Fc receptor repertoire in ERBs, including features that may affect activation potential, and discovered the lack of evolutionary conserved short pentraxins. These findings reinforce the hypothesis that a differential threshold of regulation and/or absence of key immune mediators may promote tolerance and decrease inflammation in ERBs.
Published: 2021
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41. Asymptomatic Infection of Marburg Virus Reservoir Bats Is Explained by a Strategy of Immunoprotective Disease Tolerance

Author: Jonathan C. Guito, Jonathan S. Towner, Raina Kumar, Amy J. Schuh, Elyse R. Nagle, Catherine E. Arnold, Kirsten Kulcsar, Jessica R. Harmon, Brian R. Amman, Gustavo Palacios, Jessica R. Spengler, Joseph Prescott, Tara K. Sealy, JoAnn D. Coleman-McCray, and Mariano Sanchez-Lockhart
Subjects: filovirus, Male, 0301 basic medicine, CD14, bat, Disease, immune response, Monocytes, General Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Proinflammatory cytokine, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Immune system, Immunity, Chiroptera, Immune Tolerance, medicine, Animals, Humans, reservoir host, Marburg Virus Disease, ddc:610, emerging zoonotic pathogen, Asymptomatic Infections, disease tolerance, Marburg virus, Disease Reservoirs, virus-host interaction, biology, medicine.disease, ISG15, Virology, 030104 developmental biology, Gene Expression Regulation, Marburgvirus, monocyte, Host-Pathogen Interactions, gene expression, biology.protein, Female, Antibody, 610 Medizin und Gesundheit, General Agricultural and Biological Sciences, Cytokine storm, 030217 neurology & neurosurgery
Abstract: Marburg virus (MARV) is among the most virulent pathogens of primates, including humans. Contributors to severe MARV disease include immune response suppression and inflammatory gene dysregulation (“cytokine storm”), leading to systemic damage and often death. Conversely, MARV causes little to no clinical disease in its reservoir host, the Egyptian rousette bat (ERB). Previous genomic and in vitro data suggest that a tolerant ERB immune response may underlie MARV avirulence, but no significant examination of this response in vivo yet exists. Here, using colony-bred ERBs inoculated with a bat isolate of MARV, we use species-specific antibodies and an immune gene probe array (NanoString) to temporally characterize the transcriptional host response at sites of MARV replication relevant to primate pathogenesis and immunity, including CD14+ monocytes/macrophages, critical immune response mediators, primary MARV targets, and skin at the inoculation site, where highest viral loads and initial engagement of antiviral defenses are expected. Our analysis shows that ERBs upregulate canonical antiviral genes typical of mammalian systems, such as ISG15, IFIT1, and OAS3, yet demonstrate a remarkable lack of significant induction of proinflammatory genes classically implicated in primate filoviral pathogenesis, including CCL8, FAS, and IL6. Together, these findings offer the first in vivo functional evidence for disease tolerance as an immunological mechanism by which the bat reservoir asymptomatically hosts MARV. More broadly, these data highlight factors determining disparate outcomes between reservoir and spillover hosts and defensive strategies likely utilized by bat hosts of other emerging pathogens, knowledge that may guide development of effective antiviral therapies.
Published: 2021
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42. Ebola Virus Disease Diagnostics, Sierra Leone: Analysis of Real-time Reverse Transcription–Polymerase Chain Reaction Values for Clinical Blood and Oral Swab Specimens

Author: Matthew J. Maenner, Markus H Kainulainen, Wen-Pin Tzeng, Ute Ströher, Jessica A. Belser, Gulchekhra Shakirova, Galina E. Zemtsova, Christopher D. Paddock, Cheng-Feng Chiang, James Graziano, Christopher Sexton, Mike Flint, Bobbie R. Erickson, Brian H. Bird, Kimetha Slater, Brima Kargbo, Janae L. Stovall, Angela J. Sanchez, Amy J. Schuh, Aaron C. Brault, Lisa Wiggleton Guerrero, Robyn A. Stoddard, Ayan K. Chakrabarti, Kimberly A. Dodd, Dianna M. Blau, Alison Jane Basile, Slavica Mijatovic-Rustempasic, Brian R. Amman, Laura K. McMullan, Shelley Brown, Michael K. Lo, Lauren E. Andersen, Tara K. Sealy, Laura Morgan, Shannon L. Emery, Brandy J. Russell, Maryann Turnsek, Molly M. Freeman, Meredith Pyle, Jörn Winter, Marko Zivcec, David Q.-H. Wang, John D. Klena, Jonathan S. Towner, Rachael A. Priestley, Johanna S. Salzer, Raydel Anderson, Samuel J. Crowe, Christin H. Goodman, Scott W. Bearden, Jamie L. Perniciaro, Eric Bergeron, Victor E. Matt-Lebby, Lance Presser, Stuart T. Nichol, Michael D. Bowen, Christina F. Spiropoulou, Feng Liu, Tim Flietstra, and Aridth Gibbons
Subjects: Ebola virus, business.industry, 030231 tropical medicine, Outbreak, Disease, medicine.disease_cause, Virology, law.invention, Sierra leone, Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, 03 medical and health sciences, 0302 clinical medicine, Infectious Diseases, Real-time polymerase chain reaction, Specimen Quality, law, medicine, Immunology and Allergy, 030212 general & internal medicine, business, Polymerase chain reaction
Abstract: During the Ebola virus outbreak of 2013-2016, the Viral Special Pathogens Branch field laboratory in Sierra Leone tested approximately 26 000 specimens between August 2014 and October 2015. Analysis of the B2M endogenous control Ct values showed its utility in monitoring specimen quality, comparing results with different specimen types, and interpretation of results. For live patients, blood is the most sensitive specimen type and oral swabs have little diagnostic utility. However, swabs are highly sensitive for diagnostic testing of corpses.
Published: 2016
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43. Perspectives on West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak, 2013–2016

Author: Elizabeth Ervin, Stuart T. Nichol, Jonathan S. Towner, Pierre E. Rollin, and Jessica R. Spengler
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, Microbiology (medical), spillover, Epidemiology, Expedited, viruses, lcsh:Medicine, Ebola virus disease, Disease, medicine.disease_cause, epizootic, lcsh:Infectious and parasitic diseases, Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Viral hemorrhagic fever, Perspectives on West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak, 2013–2016, 03 medical and health sciences, Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Environmental health, West Africa, medicine, emergence, lcsh:RC109-216, viral hemorrhagic fever, health care economics and organizations, Epizootic, Ebolavirus, Ebola virus, outbreak, business.industry, Transmission (medicine), lcsh:R, Outbreak, medicine.disease, Virology, zoonoses, 030104 developmental biology, Infectious Diseases, Perspective, Ebola, business
Abstract: Many features of this outbreak reinforce the benefit of continued investment in global health security., The variety of factors that contributed to the initial undetected spread of Ebola virus disease in West Africa during 2013–2016 and the difficulty controlling the outbreak once the etiology was identified highlight priorities for disease prevention, detection, and response. These factors include occurrence in a region recovering from civil instability and lacking experience with Ebola response; inadequate surveillance, recognition of suspected cases, and Ebola diagnosis; mobile populations and extensive urban transmission; and the community’s insufficient general understanding about the disease. The magnitude of the outbreak was not attributable to a substantial change of the virus. Continued efforts during the outbreak and in preparation for future outbreak response should involve identifying the reservoir, improving in-country detection and response capacity, conducting survivor studies and supporting survivors, engaging in culturally appropriate public education and risk communication, building productive interagency relationships, and continuing support for basic research.
Published: 2016
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44. Experimental infection of Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) with Sosuga virus demonstrates potential transmission routes for a bat-borne human pathogenic paramyxovirus

Author: Stuart T. Nichol, Tara K. Sealy, César G. Albariño, Stephen R. Welch, Jonathan S. Towner, Jessica R. Spengler, Brian R. Amman, Shannon G.M. Kirejczyk, and Amy J. Schuh
Subjects: Male, 0301 basic medicine, Disease reservoir, Physiology, RC955-962, Urine, Salivary Glands, 0302 clinical medicine, Arctic medicine. Tropical medicine, Immune Physiology, Chiroptera, Bats, Medicine and Health Sciences, Uganda, Mammals, Paramyxoviridae Infections, biology, Transmission (medicine), Eukaryota, Viral Load, Body Fluids, Blood, Infectious Diseases, Vertebrates, Paramyxoviridae, Public aspects of medicine, RA1-1270, Anatomy, Viral load, Research Article, 030231 tropical medicine, Microbiology, Virus, 03 medical and health sciences, Exocrine Glands, Virology, Disease Transmission, Infectious, Animals, Humans, Natural reservoir, Feces, Disease Reservoirs, Euthanasia, Organisms, Rectum, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Biology and Life Sciences, biology.organism_classification, Gastrointestinal Tract, Viral Tropism, 030104 developmental biology, Amniotes, Digestive System, Rousettus, Viral Transmission and Infection, Spleen
Abstract: In August 2012, a wildlife biologist became severely ill after becoming infected with a novel paramyxovirus, termed Sosuga virus. In the weeks prior to illness, the patient worked with multiple species of bats in South Sudan and Uganda, including Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs: Rousettus aegyptiacus). A follow-up study of Ugandan bats found multiple wild-caught ERBs to test positive for SOSV in liver and spleen. To determine the competency of these bats to act as a natural reservoir host for SOSV capable of infecting humans, captive-bred ERBs were inoculated with a recombinant SOSV, representative of the patient’s virus sequence. The bats were inoculated subcutaneously, sampled daily (blood, urine, fecal, oral and rectal swabs) and serially euthanized at predetermined time points. All inoculated bats became infected with SOSV in multiple tissues and blood, urine, oral, rectal and fecal swabs tested positive for SOSV RNA. No evidence of overt morbidity or mortality were observed in infected ERBs, although histopathological examination showed subclinical disease in a subset of tissues. Importantly, SOSV was isolated from oral/rectal swabs, urine and feces, demonstrating shedding of infectious virus concomitant with systemic infection. All bats euthanized at 21 days post-inoculation (DPI) seroconverted to SOSV between 16 and 21 DPI. These results are consistent with ERBs being competent reservoir hosts for SOSV with spillover potential to humans., Author summary Sosuga virus (SOSV) was first identified in August 2012 in a sample obtained from a biologist that had become severely ill after working with bats in Sudan and Uganda. Testing of bat tissues from Uganda revealed the presence of SOSV RNA in Egyptian rousette bats (ERB: Rousettus aegyptiacus). To more definitively determine if these bats could be reservoir hosts of SOSV with potential for transmitting the virus to humans, we subcutaneously inoculated 12 captive-bred ERBs with a recombinant SOSV and collected biological samples daily through 21 days post inoculation (DPI) to investigate the dynamics of virus infection and shedding. All bats became infected with SOSV and exhibited only mild cellular pathology following histopathological analyses. Multiple qRT-PCR and virus isolation positive tissues were collected as well as urine, oral, rectal, and fecal swabs, indicative of a systemic infection. At study completion, no animals had displayed any overt clinical signs of infection, virus was detected in multiple tissues, and all infected bats euthanized at the latest time point had seroconverted to SOSV. Collectively, our study demonstrates ERBs are a competent host and exhibit attributes consistent with being a natural reservoir and zoonotic source for SOSV.
Published: 2020
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45. Transcriptomics Reveal Antiviral Gene Induction in the Egyptian Rousette Bat Is Antagonized In Vitro by Marburg Virus Infection

Author: Catherine E. Arnold, Jonathan C. Guito, Mariano Sanchez-Lockhart, Sean Lovett, Jonathan S. Towner, Elyse R. Nagle, Louis A. Altamura, and Gustavo Palacios
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, 030106 microbiology, lcsh:QR1-502, Egyptian rousette bat, Viremia, Virus, Article, lcsh:Microbiology, Cell Line, Transcriptome, 03 medical and health sciences, transcriptomics, Marburg virus disease, Interferon, Virology, Chiroptera, medicine, Animals, Marburg Virus Disease, skin and connective tissue diseases, Disease Resistance, Marburg virus, VP35, Regulation of gene expression, biology, Gene Expression Profiling, medicine.disease, Marburgvirus, biology.organism_classification, Immunity, Innate, 3. Good health, Gene expression profiling, body regions, 030104 developmental biology, Infectious Diseases, Gene Expression Regulation, Host-Pathogen Interactions, Interferons, medicine.drug
Abstract: The Egyptian rousette bat (ERB) is the only known Marburg virus (MARV) reservoir host. ERBs develop a productive MARV infection with low viremia and shedding but no overt disease, suggesting this virus is efficiently controlled by ERB antiviral responses. This dynamic would contrast with humans, where MARV-mediated interferon (IFN) antagonism early in infection is thought to contribute to the severe, often fatal disease. The newly-annotated ERB genome and transcriptome have now enabled us to use a custom-designed NanoString nCounter ERB CodeSet in conjunction with RNA-seq to investigate responses in a MARV-infected ERB cell line. Both transcriptomic platforms correlated well and showed that MARV inhibited the antiviral program in ERB cells, while an IFN antagonism-impaired MARV was less efficient at suppressing the response gene induction, phenotypes previously reported for primate cells. Interestingly, and despite the expansion of IFN loci in the ERB genome, neither MARV showed specific induction of almost any IFN gene. However, we detected an upregulation of putative, unannotated ERB antiviral paralogs, as well as an elevated basal expression in uninfected ERB cells of key antiviral genes.
Published: 2018

46. Taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales: update 2018

Author: Kang Seuk Choi, Nikos Vasilakis, Claudio Verdugo, Janusz T. Paweska, Thomas Briese, Víctor Manuel Neira Ramírez, Andrew J. Bennett, Masayuki Horie, Charles H. Calisher, Robert Kityo, Anthony R. Fooks, Martin Schwemmle, Sunil K. Mor, Nidia G. Aréchiga Ceballos, Timothy H. Hyndman, Ayato Takada, Yíngyún Caì, Robert A. Lamb, Alexander Bukreyev, Paul A. Rota, Tony L. Goldberg, Lin-Fa Wang, Benhur Lee, Kartik Chandran, Hideki Ebihara, Michael R. Wiley, Ralf G. Dietzgen, Anna E. Whitfield, Mark D. Stenglein, Piet Maes, Andrew J. Easton, Jean L. Patterson, Valerian V. Dolja, Olga Dolnik, Eugene V. Koonin, James F. X. Wellehan, Ralf Dürrwald, Peter L. Collins, Qisheng Song, Susan Payne, Jonathan S. Towner, Sina Bavari, Sonia Vázquez-Morón, Pierre Formenty, Sophie J. Smither, Keizō Tomonaga, Leslie L. Domier, Dàohóng Jiāng, Gael Kurath, Robert B. Tesh, Sergey V. Netesov, Elodie Ghedin, Andrea Maisner, Denise A. Marston, Cristine Campos Lawson, Elke Mühlberger, Christopher F. Basler, Conrad M. Freuling, Yǒng Zhèn Zhāng, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Peter J. Walker, Gōngyín Yè, David Wang, Ron A. M. Fouchier, Gustavo Palacios, Gary P. Kobinger, Yuri I. Wolf, Timothy Song, Hideki Kondō, Mart Krupovic, Karla Prieto, David M. Stone, Luciano M. Thomazelli, Colin A. Chapman, Ashley C. Banyard, Jens H. Kuhn, Stuart G. Siddell, Noël Tordo, John M. Dye, Terry Fei Fan Ng, Charles Y. Chiu, Kim R. Blasdell, Bertus K. Rima, Victoria Wahl, Eric M. Leroy, Gaya K. Amarasinghe, Juan Emilio Echevarría, Norbert Nowotny, Roger Hewson, Thomas Müller, Viktor E. Volchkov, Washington University School of Medicine (WUSM), University of Washington [Seattle], Laboratorio de Rabia, Instituto de Diagnóstico y Referencias Epidemiológicos, Animal and Plant Health Agency [Weybridge] (APHA), Georgia State University, University System of Georgia (USG), U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison-Influenza Research Institute, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation [Canberra] (CSIRO), Columbia Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University [New York], The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University [Fort Collins] (CSU), Albert Einstein College of Medicine [New York], Department of Anthropology [Montréal], McGill University = Université McGill [Montréal, Canada], Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, University of California [San Francisco] (UC San Francisco), University of California (UC), Avian Disease Research Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases [Bethesda] (NIAID-NIH), National Institutes of Health [Bethesda] (NIH), Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), University of Queensland [Brisbane], Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University (OSU), Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Philipps Universität Marburg = Philipps University of Marburg, University of Chicago, IDT Biologika, School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick [Coventry], Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Rochester [USA], Institute of Health Carlos III, Organisation Mondiale de la Santé / World Health Organization Office (OMS / WHO), Department of Viroscience [Rotterdam, The Netherlands], Erasmus University Medical Center [Rotterdam] (Erasmus MC), Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health - Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology [New York], New York University [New York] (NYU), NYU System (NYU)-NYU System (NYU)-New York University [New York] (NYU), NYU System (NYU)-NYU System (NYU), Public Health England [Salisbury] (PHE), Kagoshima University, Murdoch University, State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University [Wuhan] (HZAU), Makerere University [Kampala, Ouganda] (MAK), Research Centre in Infectious Diseases, CHUL Research Centre and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université Laval [Québec] (ULaval)-Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University, National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles (BMGE), Institut Pasteur [Paris] (IP), US Geological Survey [Seattle], United States Geological Survey [Reston] (USGS), Northwestern University [Evanston], Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai [New York] (MSSM), Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Catholic University of Leuven - Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), Neuromuscular Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Minnesota [Twin Cities] (UMN), University of Minnesota System-University of Minnesota System, Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM), Boston University [Boston] (BU), Universidad de Chile = University of Chile [Santiago] (UCHILE), Novosibirsk State University (NSU), Department of Medicine [San Francisco], University of California (UC)-University of California (UC), University of Veterinary Medicine [Vienna] (Vetmeduni), Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences (MBRU), Texas Biomedical Research Institute [San Antonio, TX], National Institute for Communicable Diseases [Johannesburg] (NICD), Queen's University [Belfast] (QUB), National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), University of Freiburg [Freiburg], University of Bristol [Bristol], Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl), Ministry of Defence (UK) (MOD), University of Missouri [Columbia] (Mizzou), University of Missouri System, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science [Weymouth] (CEFAS), Hokkaido University [Sapporo, Japan], Universidade de São Paulo - USP (BRAZIL), Institute for Virus Research, Stratégies antivirales, Institut Pasteur de Guinée, Réseau International des Instituts Pasteur (RIIP), Viral Special Pathogens Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-WHO Collaborative Centre for Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias [Buenos Aires], Universidad de Buenos Aires [Buenos Aires] (UBA), Bases moléculaires de la pathogénicité virale – Molecular Basis of Viral Pathogenicity (BMPV), Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie (CIRI), École normale supérieure de Lyon (ENS de Lyon)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Université de Lyon-Université de Lyon-Université Jean Monnet - Saint-Étienne (UJM)-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM)-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)-École normale supérieure de Lyon (ENS de Lyon)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Université de Lyon-Université de Lyon-Université Jean Monnet - Saint-Étienne (UJM)-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM)-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center [Frederick], U.S. Social Security Administration, CSIRO Health & Biosecurity, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Ecoscience Precinct, GPO Box 267, Brisbane, Duke-NUS Medical School [Singapore], University of Florida [Gainesville] (UF), University of Nebraska Medical Center, University of Nebraska System, Kansas State University, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, China National Rice Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease prevention and Control, Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT), Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases [USA] (USAMRIID), Albert Einstein College of Medicine, McGill University, Kyoto University [Kyoto], University of California [San Francisco] (UCSF), University of California, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, University of Queensland (UQ), Philipps University of Marburg, Warwick University, Public Health England [Porton Down, Salisbury], Huazhong Agricultural University, Makerere University (MAK), Faculty of Medicine-Laval University [Québec], Okayama University [Okayama], Institut Pasteur [Paris], Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville, University of Minnesota [Twin Cities], Universidad de Chile, University of California-University of California, Texas Biomedical Research Institute [San Antonio, Texas], National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD), Centre for Experimental Medicine [Queen’s University of Belfast], University of Bristol (School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine), University of Missouri [Columbia], Hokkaido University, Bases moléculaires de la pathogénicité virale – Molecular Basis of Viral Pathogenicity, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie - UMR (CIRI), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM)-École normale supérieure - Lyon (ENS Lyon)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Université de Lyon-Université de Lyon-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM)-École normale supérieure - Lyon (ENS Lyon)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Université de Lyon-Université de Lyon-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Duke NUS Medical School, University of Florida [Gainesville], and Virology
Subjects: 0301 basic medicine, Order Mononegavirales, 040301 veterinary sciences, Mononegavirales Infections, 04 agricultural and veterinary sciences, General Medicine, Biology, Data science, Virology, [SDV.MP.BAC]Life Sciences [q-bio]/Microbiology and Parasitology/Bacteriology, Article, 0403 veterinary science, 03 medical and health sciences, 030104 developmental biology, [SDV.MP.VIR]Life Sciences [q-bio]/Microbiology and Parasitology/Virology, Humans, Animals, [SDV.IMM]Life Sciences [q-bio]/Immunology, Taxonomy (biology), Mononegavirales, Phylogeny
Abstract: International audience; In 2018, the order Mononegavirales was expanded by inclusion of 1 new genus and 12 novel species. This article presents the updated taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales as now accepted by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and summarizes additional taxonomic proposals that may affect the order in the near future.
Published: 2018
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47. Ebola Virus Diagnostics: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Laboratory in Sierra Leone, August 2014 to March 2015

Author: Michael D. Bowen, Christina F. Spiropoulou, Robyn A. Stoddard, Scott W. Bearden, Shelley Campbell, Galina E. Zemtsova, Kimberly A. Dodd, Eric Bergeron, Martin Steinau, David Wang, R. Ryan Lash, Ayan K. Chakrabarti, Brandy J. Russell, Amy J. Schuh, Lisa Wiggleton Guerrero, Aaron C. Brault, Celine H. Taboy, Brian H. Bird, Dianna M. Blau, Alison Jane Basile, Jessica A. Belser, Jonathan S. Towner, Rachael A. Priestley, Angela J. Sanchez, James L.B. Massally, Johanna S. Salzer, Molly M. Freeman, Brian R. Amman, Gbetuwa Momoh, Christopher D. Paddock, Michael K. Lo, Aridth Gibbons, Maryann Turnsek, Augustine Goba, Mike Flint, John D. Klena, Bobbie R. Erickson, Marko Zivcec, Stuart T. Nichol, Christin H. Goodman, Tara K. Sealy, Mark A. Rayfield, Meredith Pyle, Ute Ströher, and Laura K. McMullan
Subjects: medicine.medical_specialty, Ebola virus, business.industry, viruses, Outbreak, medicine.disease_cause, Disease control, Virology, Sierra leone, Infectious Diseases, Family medicine, medicine, Immunology and Allergy, business
Abstract: In August 2014, the Viral Special Pathogens Branch of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention established a field laboratory in Sierra Leone in response to the ongoing Ebola virus outbreak. Through March 2015, this laboratory tested >12 000 specimens from throughout Sierra Leone. We describe the organization and procedures of the laboratory located in Bo, Sierra Leone.
Published: 2015
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48. A Recently Discovered Pathogenic Paramyxovirus, Sosuga Virus, is Present in Rousettus aegyptiacus Fruit Bats at Multiple Locations in Uganda

Author: Stuart T. Nichol, S. Campbell, Brian R. Amman, DeeAnn M. Reeder, Jonathan S. Towner, Tara K. Sealy, Stephen Balinandi, Brian H. Bird, Ute Ströher, Amy J. Schuh, Winyi Kaboyo, Luke Nyakarahuka, Megan E. B. Jones, César G. Albariño, and Megan E. Vodzack
Subjects: Male, Paramyxoviridae, viruses, Animals, Wild, Article, Virus, Viral hemorrhagic fever, Malaise, Chiroptera, medicine, Sore throat, Maculopapular rash, Animals, Humans, Uganda, Natural reservoir, Phylogeny, Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics, Paramyxoviridae Infections, Ecology, biology, Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction, biology.organism_classification, medicine.disease, Virology, Female, medicine.symptom, Rousettus
Abstract: In August 2012, a wildlife biologist became ill immediately following a 6-wk field trip to collect bats and rodents in South Sudan and Uganda. After returning to the US, the biologist was admitted to the hospital with multiple symptoms including fever, malaise, headache, generalized myalgia and arthralgia, stiffness in the neck, and sore throat. Soon after admission, the patient developed a maculopapular rash and oropharynx ulcerations. The patient remained hospitalized for 14 d. Several suspect pathogens, including viral hemorrhagic fever viruses such as Ebola viruses and Marburg viruses, were ruled out through standard diagnostic testing. However, deep sequencing and metagenomic analyses identified a novel paramyxovirus, later named Sosuga virus, in the patient’s blood. To determine the potential source, bat tissues collected during the 3-wk period just prior to the onset of symptoms were tested for Sosuga virus, and several Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) were found to be positive. Further analysis of archived Egyptian rousette tissues collected at other localities in Uganda found additional Sosuga virus–positive bats, suggesting this species could be a potential natural reservoir for this novel paramyxovirus.
Published: 2015
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49. ORAL SHEDDING OF MARBURG VIRUS IN EXPERIMENTALLY INFECTED EGYPTIAN FRUIT BATS (ROUSETTUS AEGYPTIACUS)

Author: Stuart T. Nichol, Brock E. Martin, JoAnn D. Coleman-McCray, Jonathan S. Towner, Megan E. B. Jones, Luke S. Uebelhoer, Tara K. Sealy, Amy J. Schuh, Brian R. Amman, and Brian H. Bird
Subjects: Male, Mouth, Ecology, Outbreak, Viral Load, Biology, biology.organism_classification, Marburgvirus, Virology, Article, Virus Shedding, Marburg virus, Marburg marburgvirus, Marburg virus disease, architecture, Chiroptera, Animals, RNA, Viral, Marburg Virus Disease, Natural reservoir, Viral shedding, Rousettus, architecture.house, Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics
Abstract: Marburg virus (Marburg marburgvirus; MARV) causes sporadic outbreaks of Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF) in Africa. The Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) has been identified as a natural reservoir based most-recently on the repeated isolation of MARV directly from bats caught at two locations in southwestern Uganda where miners and tourists separately contracted MHF from 2007–08. Despite learning much about the ecology of MARV through extensive field investigations, there remained unanswered questions such as determining the primary routes of virus shedding and the severity of disease, if any, caused by MARV in infected bats. To answer these questions and others, we experimentally infected captive-bred R. aegyptiacus with MARV under high (biosafety level 4) containment. These experiments have shown infection profiles consistent with R. aegyptiacus being a bona fide natural reservoir host for MARV and demonstrated routes of viral shedding capable of infecting humans and other animals.
Published: 2015
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50. Clinical Care of Two Patients with Ebola Virus Disease in the United States

Author: G Marshall, Lyon, Aneesh K, Mehta, Jay B, Varkey, Kent, Brantly, Lance, Plyler, Anita K, McElroy, Colleen S, Kraft, Jonathan S, Towner, Christina, Spiropoulou, Ute, Ströher, Timothy M, Uyeki, Bruce S, Ribner, and Susan, Rogers
Subjects: Adult, Male, medicine.medical_specialty, Disease, ZMapp, Antibodies, Viral, medicine.disease_cause, Virus, Disease Outbreaks, medicine, Humans, Clinical care, Intensive care medicine, Ebola virus, business.industry, Antibodies, Monoclonal, Outbreak, Drugs, Investigational, General Medicine, Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola, Middle Aged, Ebolavirus, Liberia, medicine.disease, United States, Concomitant, Emergency medicine, Female, business, Malaria, medicine.drug
Abstract: Summary West Africa is currently experiencing the largest outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in history. Two patients with EVD were transferred from Liberia to our hospital in the United States for ongoing care. Malaria had also been diagnosed in one patient, who was treated for it early in the course of EVD. The two patients had substantial intravascular volume depletion and marked electrolyte abnormalities. We undertook aggressive supportive measures of hydration (typically, 3 to 5 liters of intravenous fluids per day early in the course of care) and electrolyte correction. As the patients’ condition improved clinically, there was a concomitant decline in the amount of virus detected in plasma.
Published: 2014
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