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Background Tsetse flies are cyclical vectors of African trypanosomiasis. They have established symbiotic associations with different bacteria, which influence certain aspects of their physiology. The vector competence of tsetse flies for different trypanosome species is highly variable and is suggested to be affected by various factors, amongst which are bacterial endosymbionts. Symbiotic interactions may provide an avenue for the disease control. The current study provided the prevalence of 3 tsetse symbionts in Glossina species from Cameroon, Chad and Nigeria.Results Tsetse flies were collected from five different locations and dissected. DNA was extracted and polymerase chain reaction PCR was used to detect the presence of Sodalis glossinidius, Spiroplasma sp and Wolbachia using specific primers. A total of 848 tsetse samples were analysed: Glossina morsitans submorsitans (47.52%), Glossina palpalis palpalis (37.26%), Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (9.08%) and Glossina tachinoides (6.13%). Only 95 (11.20%) were infected with at least one of the 3 symbionts. Among the infected, 6 (6.31%) were carrying mixed infection (Wolbachia and Spiroplasma). The overall symbiont prevalence was 0.88%, 3.66% and 11.00% respectively, for Sodalis, Spiroplasma and Wolbachia. Prevalence varied between countries and tsetse species. No Spiroplasma was detected in samples from Cameroon and no Sodalis was found in samples from Nigeria.Conclusion The present study revealed for the first time, the presence of infection by Spiroplasma in tsetse in Chad and Nigeria. These findings provide useful information to the repertoire of bacterial flora of tsetse flies and incite to more investigations to understand their implication in the vector competence of tsetse flies.

A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of Q fever in sheep in the northern part of Kaduna State, Nigeria. This study aimed to determine Coxiella burnetii infection and its risk factors in sheep in Kaduna State. A total of 400 blood samples consisting of 259 samples from females and 141 from males were aseptically collected from the jugular vein of sheep from flocks in Kaduna State. The sera obtained were screened for Q fever using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). The obtained data were analysed to determine whether there is a relationship between sex, age, and the animals tested. The analysis revealed that 8.0% of the sera was seropositive by iELISA. There was no significant difference in Q fever seropositivity in the study area according to the sex of sheep (P > 0.05). There was a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05) in Q fever seropositivity according to the age of sheep. This study indicated a high seroprevalence of Q fever mainly among female animals and older sheep. Further studies are required to determine the epizootiology of Q fever in the study area more precisely.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as an infectious organism of public health significance has evolved to a genetically distinct community-acquired MRSA with extended resistance to other than β-lactams. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 149 participants handling 446 animals (240 horses and 206 companion animals). The isolates were characterised as S. aureus and MRSA based on polymerase chain reaction detection of the nuc, mecA and mecC genes and the pvl gene for differentiation as community associated/livestock associated or hospital associated. The isolation rate of S. aureus from the human handlers’ samples was 26 (17.4%) and 170 (38.1%) from the animal samples. The prevalence of MRSA among the isolates was 7 (4.7%) from the human handlers and 19 (4.3%) from the animals. Dogs and dog handlers had the highest isolation rates and were more likely to be colonized by S. aureus and MRSA compared with horses, cats and their handlers. The highest prevalence of MRSA was from horses (5.0%) and dog handlers (10.6%). This study has demonstrated a high prevalence of community associated MRSA in apparently healthy animals and their human handlers. This has important implications for antibiotic selection and use as well as infection control measures.

Background: Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as an infectious organism of public health significance has evolved to a genetically distinct community-acquired MRSA with extended resistance to other than β-lactams. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 149 participants handling 446 animals (240 horses & 206 companion animals). The isolates were characterized as S. aureus and MRSA with based on PCR detection of nuc, mecA or mecC, with further DNA sequencing of mepR, mepA, mepB, and sapep genes for correlation between these genes and the MRSA antimicrobial resistance phenotypes. Results: Transcriptional profiling revealed that both animal and human MRSA isolates exhibited a gene cluster mepRAB (multidrug export protein gene), encoding a MarR-like transcriptional regulator (mepR), a M20/M25/M40 metallo-hydrolase protein gene (sapep) encoding resistance to biocides and carbapenems, and a hypothetical protein gene of unknown function (mepB). Conclusion: Extensive multidrug resistance for MRSA has been demonstrated in this study with similarity between the isolates in the pattern of resistance and multiple antibiotic resistance indices. This thus demonstrates possible resistance genes transfer and conferment of non-mec resistance mechanisms to MRSA in addition to the mec gene mechanism that allow the isolates repress beta-lactamases and use the efflux pumps against other antibiotics.

The need for a reliable risk map in the control of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) in Kogi East, North Central Nigeria is very important. This study was carried out to determine the effect of environmental risk factors on geospatial distribution of STHs. Epidemiological data were obtained from a district-wide survey conducted in 2018 in Kogi East. Edaphic and climatic factors were downloaded as spatial layers from international recognised health data resources centres. A total of 24 environmental factors were used in determining the risk map of STHs using MaxEnt tool. The predicted high-risk areas of A. lumbricoides, hookworms and S. stercoralis were the central part of Kogi East covering parts of Dekina, Ofu, Igalamela-Odolu, Olamaboro and Omala LGAs with probability of 0.8 to 1.00. Among the factors investigated; Temperature [mean diurnal temperature range (BIO2), temperature annual range (BIO7) and maximum temperature of the warmest month (BIO5)], precipitation [precipitation of the wettest quarter (BIO16)], and soil clay contents were the five factors that exerted most significant influence on the geospatial distribution of STHs in Kogi East, Nigeria. Public health control programmes on STHs should target high-risk areas by including them in mass drug administration, health education as well as provision of water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructures.

Newcastle disease is one of the greatest constraints to the development of poultry production in Nigeria. In this study, the spatial distribution of Newcastle disease antibodies was determined using the Geographic Information System. A total of 400 serum samples were collected from chickens in districts around Kaduna Metropolis and screened for Newcastle disease virus antibodies using the haemagglutination inhibition test done according to the procedure of OIE (2002). The spatial distribution demonstrated that the highest antibody titre level for Newcastle disease was closely associated with communities that were at entry points (Zaria— Kaduna road; Nnamdi Azikiwe bypass road; Television garage; Abuja—Kaduna expressway and Kachia road) to the metropolis and houses that are closely situated near live bird markets signifying the importance of bird movements in the spread of the disease. About 31 % (124 of 400) of chickens had antibodies to Newcastle disease virus, with exotics breeds (32.0 %) with more Newcastle disease virus antibodies than local breeds (29.8 %). The Newcastle disease prevalence was 33.9 % (39 out of 115), 31.8 % (41 out of 129) and 28.2 % (44 out of 156) for Kaduna North, Kaduna South and Chikun Local Government Areas (LGA), respectively. A Newcastle disease prevalence of 29.8 % (54 out of 181) was recorded in the local chickens, while 32.0 % (70 out of 219) was obtained from the exotic chickens.

Crimean - Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is a tick-borne viral haemorrhagic febrile disease that is highly pathogenic in humans with enzootic cycle between tick vectors and animal hosts. Human infection with CCHFV takes the clinical form of viral haemorrhagic disease, a major health condition but with limited testing in Nigeria. In this study, blood samples were collected from 333 pastoralists’ cattle in North Central Nigeria and 1,470 ticks were picked from the animals. For serology, Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) was performed using a double antigen multi species ELISA kit with sensitivity and specificity of 98.9% and 95% respectively at 95% confidence interval to detect IgG antibody to CCHFV in plasma. RT-qPCR virological technique was used to identify viral antigen in ticks that were pooled based on location and genus. Four species of ticks were morphologically identified to parasitize cattle in the sampled location namely; Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) decoloratus (34.6%), Hyalomma truncatum (32.9%), Amblyomma variegatum (24.6%) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (8%). The seroprevalence of CCHFV was found to be 67%. In Kaduna state, 85 of 108 plasma samples tested positive (78.7%) while in Plateau state 138 of 225 plasma samples tested positive (61.3%). Of the 41 pools of tick tested for CCHF, one (1) pool of 35 Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) ticks (2.4%) was positive for CCHF virus with qPCR cycle threshold of 31.88. Although Hyalommaspp. is documented to be the main vector of CCHFV, in the present investigation, Rhipicephalus ( Boophilus) species was identified to play a role as reservoir of CCHF. The high seroprevalence of CCHF in livestock underscores the public health risk associated with CCHFV at the human-animal interface in Nigeria.

Introduction Avian tuberculosis (ATB) is a zoonotic chronic wasting disease of birds with serious economic implications to poultry farmers as well as to public health, particularly in immunocompromised patients. We therefore aimed to determine the presence, prevalence and specie (Mycobacterium avium) of ATB affecting layers in Abuja, Nigeria.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study. We adapted a checklist and conducted participatory disease surveillance (PDS) in 12 farms and a live bird market (LBM). We used systematic random sampling method to select 395 layers that were screened for ATB using avian PPD. Antemortem and postmortem were conducted on those birds that tested positive. Organs and tissues with lesions were obtained, DNA was extracted, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was conducted for confirmation of Mycobacterium avium infection. Data was analyzed using PDS method of analysis (ranking and scoring) and descriptive statistics.ResultsThe study established the presence of ATB in commercial laying birds in Abuja. Using PDS, 3/13 (23.1%) locations identified the presence of ATB. Avian tuberculosis, the disease of interest, ranked eleventh. On biosecurity measures, 3/12 (25%) farms had strict movement restriction, 50% of the farms had other animals on the farm aside the layer and / broilers under intensive management, foot dips were absent in 25% of the farms, 25% had foot dips that were not in use, only a farm (8%) disinfected vehicles before entering. Only 12/23 (52.2%) farms agreed to the Tuberculin test with a 47.8% rejection rate. Out of the 12 farms sampled, 5 (41.7%) were positive for ATB. The overall prevalence of ATB was 2.8% (11/395). Layers 105 weeks old and above had the highest prevalence (4.8%) and cachexia (14.3%). Four out of the eleven (36.4%) layers that turned out positive were cachexic. All the layers that were positive for avian PPD turned out positive as M. avium using PCR analysis.Conclusion We have demonstrated the existence of ATB within Gwagwalada and Kuje local government areas (LGAs) which is a potential threat to the poultry industry and public health. The farm prevalence of 41.7% signifies the need for tuberculin test in all the layer and breeder farms in Abuja to confirm the status of ATB on farms and to curtail the spread of ATB. We have also revealed the lack of knowledge with regards to the availability and relevance of tuberculin test among poultry farmers and the need for sensitization of poultry farmers on ATB and improvement on their biosecurity measures on farms.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is a zoonotic enteric pathogen of public health significance worldwide. A cross-sectional study was carried out during which 384 faecal samples of household-reared small ruminants and water used in the various houses where the animals are reared were collected. The samples were enriched on tryptone soya broth and cultured on EMB and CT-SMAC to isolate E. coli and E. coli O157:H7 respectively; subjected to conventional biochemical tests and E. coliO157:H7 was confirmed using Wellcolex latex agglutination test kit. E. coli O157:H7 isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test and multiplex PCR was carried out to detect the presence of virulence genes stx1, stx2, eaeA and hlyA. The results of the isolation showed isolation rate of E. coli O157:H7 of 4.69% (9/192), 0.52% (1/192) which were obtained from faeces and water samples respectively. The results of the characterisation showed that one of the E. coli O157:H7 isolated harboured the eaeA and hlyA genes but was negative for stx1 and stx2 genes. The highest number of isolates showed resistance to erythromycin (90.9%) while the least was to gentamicin (6.3%). About 97.7% (43/44) of the isolates had multiple antibiotic resistance index greater than 0.2. In conclusion, household-reared small ruminants in the study area were found to be reservoirs of E. coli O157:H7 and humans living within these households are at risk of infection. The multiple antibioticresistance recorded in this study suggests widespread use of antimicrobial drugs in the study area.

The negative impact of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) in Nigeria is enormous, and it poses serious public health issues and concerns. This study was undertaken to investigate the impact of health education intervention on reinfection of STHs in pupils of rural schools of Kogi East, North Central Nigeria. A total of 10 schools with the highest prevalence of STHs at baseline were selected from the 45 schools assessed during the baseline survey. These 10 schools were randomly paired into two groups of 5 schools per group. Five schools were dewormed and given health education (DHE) intervention while the other 5 schools were dewormed only (DO) without health education. Reassessment of schools for reinfection was carried out for a period of 12 months. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Student’s t -test was used to make comparison between interventions in the incidence of infections. Analysis was carried out at p < 0.05 . Reinfection with STHs was observed from the 28th week (7th month) of both interventions with incidence of 0.29 (2 pupils) and 1.00 (7 pupils) in DO and DHE schools, respectively. In the 36th week (9th month), incidence observed in schools given DHE was 0.56 (5 pupils) while incidence of 0.89 (8 pupils) was observed in DO schools, and there was no significant difference ( t = − 1.000 , p = 0.347 ) between the interventions. At 48th week (12th month), there was no significant difference ( t = − 0.547 , p = 0.599 ) in incidence between the DHE and DO schools with incidence of 1.00 (12 pupils) and 0.83 (10 pupils), respectively. Hookworms had an incidence of 0.78 (7 pupils) at DHE schools and 0.56 (5 pupils) at DO schools in the 36th week while an incidence of 0.92 (11 pupils) and 0.83 (10 pupils) at DHE and DO schools, respectively, in the 48th week. Ascaris lumbricoides was only observed in DHE schools in a pupil with an incidence of 0.11 (1 pupil) and 0.08 (1 pupil) at 36th and 48th weeks. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of the parasites between DO and DHE intervention groups ( p > 0.05 ). School-based health education intervention had no significant impact on STH incidence in pupils of rural schools in Kogi East. Community-based deworming should be encouraged alongside improvement in the water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructures and practices at both school and home.

Toxoplasma gondii parasites present strong but geographically varied signatures of population structure. Populations sampled from Europe and North America have commonly been defined by over-representation of a small number of clonal types, in contrast to greater diversity in South America. The occurrence and extent of genetic diversity in African T. gondii populations remains understudied, undermining assessments of risk and transmission. The present study was designed to establish the occurrence, genotype and phylogeny of T. gondii in meat samples collected from livestock produced for human consumption (free-range chickens, n = 173; pigs, n = 211), comparing with T. gondii detected in blood samples collected from seropositive pregnant women (n = 91) in Benue state, Nigeria. The presence of T. gondii DNA was determined using a published nested polymerase chain reaction, targeting the 529 bp multicopy gene element. Samples with the highest parasite load (assessed using quantitative PCR) were selected for PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) targeting the surface antigen 3 (SAG3), SAG2 (5’ and 3’), beta-tubulin (BTUB) and dense granule protein 6 (GRA6) loci, and the apicoplast genome (Apico). Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in all three of the populations sampled, presenting 30.6, 31.3 and 25.3% occurrence in free-range chickens, pigs and seropositive pregnant women, respectively. Quantitative-PCR indicated low parasite occurrence in most positive samples, limiting some further molecular analyses. PCR-RFLP results suggested that T. gondii circulating in the sampled populations presented with a type II genetic background, although all included a hybrid type I/II or II/III haplotype. Concatenation of aligned RFLP amplicon sequences revealed limited diversity with nine haplotypes and little indication of host species-specific or spatially distributed sub-populations. Samples collected from humans shared haplotypes with free-range chickens and/or pigs. Africa remains under-explored for T. gondii genetic diversity and this study provides the first detailed definition of haplotypes circulating in human and animal populations in Nigeria., Author summary Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that infects most warm-blooded animals and can be transmitted from animals to humans. Three dominant genetic types have been described from a larger pool of around 16, and it has been suggested that the severity of disease may be influenced by genetic type. Little is known of T. gondii in Africa. The burden of disease is unclear, while lack of knowledge around genetic diversity and population structure undermines effective risk assessment and control. We sought to determine if T. gondii was prevalent in pigs and poultry produced for human consumption in Nigeria, comparing with genetic types detected in the overlapping human population. Using meat samples from free-range chickens and pigs, and blood samples from seropositive pregnant women in Benue state, Nigeria, we found that T. gondii with a type II genetic background were most common with limited genetic diversity. Detection of comparable genetic types in the free-range chicken, pig and human populations indicate an overlapping parasite population and can be used to inform assessments of risk to human health, most notably pregnant women. The information reported here informs on the occurrence and population structure of T. gondii in Nigeria, contributing to improved understanding in Africa.

West Nile virus (WNV) causes a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease of public health importance. The aim of this study was to determine the state of WNV infection in horses and detect the virus antigen in mosquitoes trapped in stables in Kaduna State Nigeria. The study was carried out in Kaduna State, Nigeria, and 368 horses were screened for the presence of antibodies against WNV using an IgG competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Of the 368 samples tested, 331 (89.9%) were positive for WNV antibodies. Mosquitoes from the stables were tested for WNV antigen using a VectorTest kit, and of the 31 pools of adult mosquitoes tested, only 5 (16.1%) pools tested positive for WNV antigen. This finding showed that WNV infection has occurred in horses and that there is evidence of circulation of the virus by mosquitoes in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of brucellosis and Q fever in cattle in Maigana and Birnin Gwari agro-ecological zone of Kaduna State, Nigeria. This study aimed at determining the significance of Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetti infections in cattle. A total of 400 sera samples (139 from males and 261 from females cattle) were collected and screened for brucellosis using Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) and competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) for brucellosis and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) for Q fever. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the sampled animals from the study population. Data were analyzed to determine association and risk factors. Sera analysis revealed that, 18.5 and 6.8% were seropositive by RBPT and cELISA for brucellosis, while 6.2% was seropositive by iELISA for Q fever. A significant association was detected between cattle sex and sensitivity of RBPT for detecting Brucella. Meanwhile, a non-significant association was found between cattle age and breed with sensitivity of RBPT, cELISA, and iELISA. The study indicates that brucellosis and Q ever exist with high prevalence particularly among female cattle. This presents a serious public health problem, calling for greater awareness among stakeholders and for co-ordinated surveillance for the diseases among cattle populations in Nigeria.

Background In 2012/13, the Federal government of Nigeria approved the surveillance of salmonellae in commercial poultry farms with the aim of generating baseline data for the development of a control programme. That baseline provided an opportunity to investigate potential risk factors in commercial layer farms. Methods Five hundred and twenty-three farms were evaluated for the presence of Salmonella. Each farmer was interviewed through a structured questionnaire. Univariate analysis identified 26 variables potentially associated with Salmonella presence on the farms, with different levels of significance. To simultaneously evaluate the effect of these variables, a multivariable logistic regression model was implemented. Results Farmers that are member of the Poultry Association of Nigeria (PAN) emerged as a risk factor, as well as being farmer as exclusive occupation. The risk of Salmonella increased in farms with a combined housing system as compared to farms with a single housing system. Moreover, in terms of farm management the use of plastic egg crates had a higher risk of Salmonella presence compared to paper crates. Higher risk of contamination was also identified in farms having regular contact with animal health workers, since this could be indicative of animal health problems requiring continuous assistance. Farms with no previous outbreak of salmonellosis were associated with an increase risk, since most of the farms in this category were newly established. With regard to feeding, the use of coccidiostats and commercial feeds were associated with the spread of Salmonella. Unexpectedly, the presence of other farms at distances further than 1 km away was associated with an increase in Salmonella presence as compared to farms which were in closer proximity. Close proximity among farms could favour the application of stricter biosecurity measures. Conclusions The results of the survey can be considered a baseline for implementing effective measures aimed at reducing the Salmonella prevalence in Nigerian laying hen farms.

Graphical abstract, Nigeria, being a tropical nation, characterized by favorable climatic conditions, may display high chances of feed contaminations due to aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus with the consequences of health risks associated with the consumption of dairy products. A cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the risks of occurrence and distribution of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination levels based on the European Union (EU) and United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) set limits. Feeds (n = 144) were collected from selected conventional and traditional dairy herds; prepared and analyzed using immuno-affinity column (IAC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) respectively. Forty eight (55.8%) isolates were identified as A. flavus of the isolated Aspergilli (n = 86). Of this proportion, 12 (25.0%) were aflatoxigenic strains. An outrageous number of the tested feeds (86.8%, n = 144) were positive for AFB1 contamination. Detectable AFB1 concentrations ranged between (0.5 and 24.8) μgKg−1 and were distributed variously according to many factors of distribution. Eighty three (66.4%, n = 125) of the AFB1 contaminated feed samples showed AFB1 concentrations between 5 and ≥20 μgKg-1. All-inclusive policies are key to reducing the health risks posed to the consumers of dairy products.

A study on the importance of Newcastle disease (ND) in village chickens was conducted among farmers, poultry traders and community leaders using a focus group discussion (FGD) on village chicken production in eight communities of Bauchi State, Nigeria. Participatory epidemiologic tools of proportional piling and pair wise ranking were used by all the participants of FGD to rank by importance common diseases of village chickens in their communities. Disease and predation were identified by all the participants in each community as major constraints affecting village chicken production. Among the common diseases listed in each community, ND received the highest proportional piling scores of 146/249 (69.9%) in Chinade, 35/105 (32.4%) in Jalam, 183/261(70.1%) in Udubo, 149/244 (61.1%) in Kafin Madaki, 80/183 (43.7%) in Gongoro, 175/270 (64.8%) in Dass, 126/243 (50.8%) in Kutaru and 173/288 (60.1%) in Toro. ND also received the highest pair wise ranking scores of all the listed diseases of 3/4 in Dass, 4/5 in Chinade, Gongoro and Toro respectively; 5/6 in Jalam and Udubo and 6/7 in Kafin Madaki. ND which locally was known as Farin Kashi or Mai kere occurs between November and February with symptoms of snick/rales, greenish/ whitish diarrhoea and mortality in the neighbourhood. The results identified ND and predation as the major constraints to village chickens production with ND being ranked as the most important disease affecting village chickens in Bauchi State. The study recommends the prioritization of ND by Bauchi State Government and other Non-Governmental Organization for the purpose of disease control. Key words: Newcastle disease, Nigeria, village chickens, focus group discussion, proportional piling exercise, pair wise ranking.

The role of surveillance in tuberculosis (TB) management and control is imperative to the eradication of the disease. Training of TB focal persons, TB program officers and medical officers involved in data management will help to improve the quality of surveillance data. This case study was developed using data extracted from the Oyo state Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) database on TB from January 2011 to December 2014. The case study aims to evaluate surveillance data with the overall goal of improving data quality for TB control. The training will describe the requirements of routine surveillance as well as procedures for determining the burden of TB and the evaluation of some of the key indices for surveillance data quality. The participants must have prior knowledge of how to analyze and manage data and should be able to complete the exercises in approximately three hours.

Microbial quality (MQ) of meat contact surfaces (MCS) of six major abattoirs was evaluated with a subsequent further isolation and identification of E. coli O157. Two hundred and forty 240 swab samples (SS) from MCS that include cutting equipment, floor, tables and transport media were collected for total aerobic plate count and isolation of E. coli O157. Results of the SS indicated a mean value 7.1 ± 0.3 log10 cfu/cm2. A minimum value of 6.4 ± 0.6 log10 cfu/cm2 was recorded oncutting instrument from Ningi abattoir, while a maximum value of 7.8 ± 0.3 log10 cfu/cm2 was obtained from tables at Darazo abattoir. Only 3 (1.2%) of the 240 SS of the MCS were positive for E. coli O157 using the latex agglutination kit (Difco, Michigan, USA).

Formal systems of inquiry are of limited value when working with rural communities in developing countries. The current research used alternative systems of inquiry and learning that involved applying participatory epidemiology (PE) techniques to collect veterinary information about Newcastle disease (ND) in rural areas. Results indicated that poultry constituted the largest proportion (42.4%) of livestock species kept, and the poultry diseases that local farmers callbingiri, ciwon-sufe,dankanoman-kaji, dangari, andgurdumu are consistent with modern veterinary knowledge of Newcastle disease, respiratory disease, coccidiosis, fowl pox, and ectoparasitism, respectively.Tsuwen zaki (lion's testicle;Cucumuis pustulatus) andgarafuni (balsam pear;Momordica balsamina) are traditional remedies used to prevent Newcastle disease. Local farmers are knowledgeable about common disease that affect their poultry; they have good diagnostic abilities and can recognize clinical signs. There should be improved veterinary outreach to share some of this information via active community participation, and PE should be incorporated into state and national disease surveillance systems.

Background In Nigeria not much is known about West Nile virus (WNV) in pigeons. This study determined the involvement of household-reared pigeons in the circulation of WNV in Nigeria. Methods It was a cross-sectional study. Serological detection was done using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and a pretested interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect information on risk factors related to WNV in households. Results From the156 households enumerated, 376 pigeon serum samples were collected and tested for antibodies. A total of 3.5% (13/376) of the pigeon sera were positive. Risk factors for WNV in households indicated that not having a blocked or stagnant gutter that is not flowing, and having mosquito nets at the windows and doors were found to be protective (OR=0.69, 95% CI, 0.21-2.29; OR=0.46, 95% CI, 0.14-1.56). Conclusions Household-reared pigeons contribute to the epidemiology of WNV. There is need for further studies in other species of birds, and education of the populace about its zoonotic transmission.

Contamination of poultry feeds with mycotoxin-producing fungi such as Aspergillus spp is a major threat to animal and human food. This study was conducted to determine the occurrence of aflatoxigenic strain of fungi in feeds, fed to birds in live-bird markets. Feed samples were collected from feeding troughs and feeder in cages of birds and were inoculated on Sabouraud dextrose agar and Czypeck dox agar. Of 300 feed samples, 283 yielded various fungal growth belonging to seven genera, four of them known to be mycotoxigenic. Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Mucor, Dermatophyte, Yeast, Fusarium and Penicillium, whose isolation frequencies were 78%, 6%, 5.67%, 2%, 2%, 0.33% and 0.33% respectively. The aflatoxin producing Aspergillus spp isolated were A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius 126 (42%), 27 (9%) and 3(1%) respectively. In conclusion A. flavus was the most frequently isolated, and it is a known aflatoxin producer. It is recommended that mycotoxin binders should be added to poultry feed to mitigate the effect of aflatoxin contamination of feed in live-bird market.Keywords: Aflatoxin, Aspergillus species, Feed, Live bird markets, Mycotoxin

Commercial poultry farms (n° 523), located in all the six regions of Nigeria were sampled with a view to generate baseline information about the distribution of Salmonella serovars in this country. Five different matrices (litter, dust, faeces, feed and water) were collected from each visited farm. Salmonella was isolated from at least one of the five matrices in 228 farms, with a farm prevalence of 43.6% (CI95[39.7–48.3%]). Altogether, 370 of 2615 samples collected (14.1%, CI95[12.8; 15.5%]) contained Salmonella. Considering the number of positive farms and the number of positive samples, it was evident that for the majority of the sampled farms, few samples were positive for Salmonella. With regard to the matrices, there was no difference in Salmonella prevalence among the five matrices considered. Of the 370 isolates serotyped, eighty-two different serotypes were identified and Salmonella Kentucky was identified as having the highest isolation rate in all the matrices sampled (16.2%), followed by S. Poona and S. Elisabethville. S. Kentucky was distributed across the country, whereas the other less frequent serovars had a more circumscribed diffusion. This is one of few comprehensive studies on the occurrence and distribution of Salmonella in commercial chicken layer farms from all the six regions of Nigeria. The relatively high prevalence rate documented in this study may be attributed to the generally poor infrastructure and low biosecurity measures in controlling stray animals, rodents and humans. Data collected could be valuable for instituting effective intervention strategies for Salmonella control in Nigeria and also in other developing countries with a similar poultry industry structure, with the final aim of reducing Salmonella spread in animals and ultimately in humans.

Background: Toxoplasmosis causes serious economic losses in livestock. Congenital transmission can occur in pregnant women, commonly with serious consequences.Methods: A cross-sectional study was designed to screen for the absence or presence of anti-T. gondii IgM or IgG antibodies and explore associated risk factors in pregnant women (n=261) that attended antenatal clinics in selected hospitals in Benue state, Nigeria. Blood samples were subjected to enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Information on sociodemographic data and possible risk factors were obtained using a structured questionnaire.Results: Out of 261 pregnant women, 19 (7.3%) and 108 (41.1%) were seropositive for anti-T. gondii IgM and IgG respectively. Comparison of IgM and IgG results suggested that 4.4% presented evidence of possible primary infection, 38.7% previous exposure, 2.8% possible reactivated or chronic infections and 51.8% were susceptible to T. gondii infection. The nature of women’s housing was significantly associated with anti-T. gondii IgM seropositivity (p

Newcastle disease constitutes a major constraint to rural poultry production system in Nigeria. This study used serological method to estimate the level of circulating antibodies against ND in nonvaccinated village chickens, raised under traditional management system in Zamfara State, Nigeria. Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay was used to analyze 504 chicken sera for Newcastle disease virus antibodies from randomly selected households and live bird markets. Higher seroprevalence rate of Newcastle disease virus antibodies was detected in both household and live bird markets. Overall, seropositive rate was found to be 32.5% (164/504). About 35.8% (115/321) sero-positive rate was obtained from live bird markets while 26.8% (49/183) seropositive rate was found in households. Comparison was made between the sero prevalence of house hold and live bird markets as well as between sexes. Live bird markets show a statistically significant higher prevalence rate (P<0.05) when compared with chickens sampled from households (OR 1.53; 95% CI, 1.024–2.275). The prevalence of ND indicated the presence of the virus amongst the population, and hence there should be an improvement in the vaccine campaign against ND for rural poultry especially the use of thermostable vaccine to reduce the chances of vaccine failure.

Coxiellosis (Q fever) is a zoonosis of public health significance. This study was aimed at determining the seroprevalence and the risk factors associated with Coxiella burnetti infection in cattle in Kaduna metropolis, Nigeria. A total of 539 blood samples from 42 cattle farms in the four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna metropolis were tested using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), in addition to application of structured questionnaires on the farmers. The total prevalence rate and herd prevalence rates obtained were 78 (14.5%) and 24 (57.1%) respectively. The sex based prevalence rates showed no significant difference between females(14.5%) and males(14.1%). Age of cattle was not significantly associated with infection (OR= 1.13, 95% CI, 0.69-1.86). Prevalence was significantly higher in the local breed of cattle (17.1%) than cross breed (1.3%) (P

This study evaluated retailed-beef and related meat products for E. coli O157 in Zaria, Nigeria. Sample types included raw meat, “suya” (roasted meat), “balangu” (barbequed meat), “kilishi” (spiced sun dried meat) and “dambu” (shredded fried meat). A total of 182 samples were analyzed for E. coli O157. Isolates were characterized using conventional biochemical methods and Microbact 12E test kit. Susceptibilities of the isolates to 18 commonly used antimicrobial agents were determined by the disk diffusion method. The carriage of stx1 and stx2 genes was determined by PCR. Microbact confirmed 4 E. coli isolates. All isolates exhibited multiple drug resistance to the antimicrobial agents tested. An overall prevalence of 2.2% was obtained for E. coli O157. All 4 isolates of E. coli O157 were isolated from raw meat; two of which harboured the stx1 gene.

Brucellosis and campylobacteriosis are economically important diseases affecting bovine reproductive efficiency in Nigeria. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted in 271 cattle herds in Adamawa, Kaduna and Kano states of northern Nigeria using multistage cluster sampling. Serum from 4745 mature animals was tested for Brucella antibodies using the Rose-Bengal plate test and positives were confirmed in series-testing protocol using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Preputial scrapings from 602 bulls were tested using culture and identification for Campylobacter fetus. For each disease, a herd was classified as positive if one or more animals tested positive. For each herd, information on potential managemental and environmental risk factors was collected through a questionnaire administered during an interview with the manager, owner or herdsman. Multiple logistic regression models were used to model the odds of herd infection for each disease. A zero-inflated Poisson model was used to model the count of Brucella-positive animals within herds, with the number tested as an exposure variable. The presence of small ruminants (sheep and/or goats) on the same farm, and buying-in of >3 new animals in the previous year or failure to practice quarantine were associated with increased odds of herd-level campylobacteriosis and brucellosis, as well as increased within-herd counts of Brucella-positive animals. In addition, high rainfall, initial acquisition of animals from markets, practice of gynaecological examination and failure to practice herd prophylactic measures were positively associated with the odds of C. fetus infection in the herd. Herd size of >15, pastoral management system and presence of handling facility on the farm were associated with increased odds, and gynaecological examination with reduced odds of herd-level Brucella seropositivity. Furthermore, the zero-inflated Poisson model showed that borrowing or sharing of bulls was associated with higher counts, and provision of mineral supplement with lower counts of Brucella-positive cattle within herds. Identification of risk factors for bovine campylobacteriosis and brucellosis can help to identify appropriate control measures, and the use of zero-inflated count model can provide more specific information on these risk factors.

Salmonella is among the most important food borne pathogens worldwide contaminating a wide range of animal products including meat products. Human illnesses due to this pathogen are attributed to poor biosecurity in production, improper processing and handling of meat and meat products. This is more likely where surveillance and regulatory control is weak. There is however limited information on the occurrence of these pathogens in foods in Nigeria. The extent of contamination of retail-beef and related meat products with Salmonellae in Zaria was evaluated. A total of 435 retailed beef and related meat products consisting of muscle meat, offal and processed meat products were tested for the presence of Salmonella species. Sample types included raw meat, ‘suya’ (roasted meat), ‘balangu’ (barbequed meat), ‘Kilishi’ (spiced sun dried meat) and ‘dambu’ (shredded fried meat). Samples were derived from four major markets and Zango abattoir in Zaria, Nigeria and cultured using selective isolation method with prior enrichment. Suspected isolates were identified and characterised using conventional biochemical methods and Microbact 12E (Oxoid, UK) identification kit. The isolates were serotyped. Confirmed isolates were evaluated in vitro for susceptibilities to 18 commonly used antimicrobial agents. Ten samples (2.3%) were positive for Salmonella. Raw beef samples had the highest isolation rates (2.43%). All the 10 Salmonella isolates were found to carry the invA gene. All the isolates exhibited multiple drug resistance. Simultaneous resistance to up to 8 antibiotics was found amongst the Salmonellae. The isolates exhibited more commonly resistance to members of β-lactam family and other antibiotic classes including lincosamides, macrolides, aminoglycosides and nitrofurans. Meat and meat products including ready-to-eat meat in Zaria were contaminated with multidrug and virulent Salmonella species. Meat and meat products in Nigeria are thus a hazardous group of foods that can potentially transmit this pathogen to humans.

The occurrence of veterinary drug residues in poultry products in Kaduna state was determined. Information on drug use was obtained from ten layer flocks weekly for 10 weeks. Two hundred commercial eggs, and 378 slaughtered chicken faeces were examined for antibacterial drug residues using a disc diffusion microbial inhibition test with Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, and Micrococcus luteus ATCC 9341 respectively. All 10 farms used a drug at least once, nine used antibacterial drugs for either prophylaxis, therapy or both. None of the farms observed drug withdrawal period. Two eggs (1%) and 82 (21.8%) of the chicken faeces were positive. Broilers had a significantly higher incidence (33.1%) for antibacterial substances at slaughter (χ2,P

Introduction Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 was first reported in poultry in Nigeria in February 2006. The only human case that occurred was linked to contact with poultry in a live bird market (LBM). LBM surveillance was instituted to assess the degree of threat of human exposure to H5N1. The key indicator was detection of H5N1 in LBMs. We evaluated the surveillance system to assess its operations and attributes. Methods We used the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) updated guidelines for evaluating public health surveillance systems. We reviewed and analyzed passive surveillance data for HPAI (January 2006-March 2009) from the Avian Influenza National Reference Laboratory, and live bird market surveillance data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Nigeria. We interviewed key stakeholders and reviewed reports of live bird market surveillance to obtain additional information on the operations of the system. We assessed the key system attributes. Results A total of 299 cases occurred in 25 (72%) states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The system detected HPAI H5N1 virus in 7 (9.5%) LBMs; 2 (29%) of which were from 2 (18.2%) states with no previous case. A total of 17,852 (91.5%) of samples arrived at the laboratory within 24 hours but laboratory analysis took over 7 days. The sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) were 15.4% and 66.7% respectively. Conclusion The system is useful, flexible, complex and not timely, but appears to be meeting its objectives. The isolation of HPAI H5N1 virus in some of these markets is an indication that the markets are possible reservoirs of the virus in Nigeria. We recommend that the Federal Government of Nigeria should dedicate more funds for surveillance for HPAI as this will aid early warning and reduce the risk of a pandemic.

UNLABELLED The bacterial genera Listeria and Staphylococcus have been frequently isolated from food products and are responsible for a number of animal and human diseases. The aim of the study was to simultaneously isolate and characterize L. monocytogenes and Staphylococcus species from 300 samples of raw meat and meat products, to determine the susceptibility of the organisms to commonly used antimicrobial agents and to determine the presence of haemolysin A (hyl) virulence gene in L. monocytogenes and staphylococcal cassette chromosome mecA (SCCmec) gene in the Staph. aureus isolates using PCR. Of the 85 Listeria isolates tested, 12 L. monocytogenes were identified and tested for their sensitivity to 14 antimicrobial agents. All the 12 isolates (100%) were resistant to nine antimicrobial agents, but however sensitive to gentamicin. Only one isolate was found to harbour the hylA gene. Twenty-nine isolates were confirmed as Staph. aureus by the Microbact 12S identification system and were all presumptively identified as methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus species using oxacillin-resistant Staph. aureus basal medium (ORSAB). The 29 Staph. aureus isolates were tested for their sensitivity to 16 antimicrobial agents, and 11 were resistant to methicillin. None of the 11 Staph. aureus isolates harboured the methicillin resistance, mecA gene. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus are important agents of foodborne diseases. Occurrence of these infectious agents was established in meat and meat products in Zaria, Nigeria. Majority of isolates obtained from this study, displayed multidrug resistance to commonly used antimicrobial agents, including methicillin resistance among the Staph. aureus isolates. The potential virulence of L. monocytogenes found in ready-to-eat food was documented by the carriage of hly A gene by one of the isolates. A different mechanism of methicillin resistance or different homologue of mec A gene may be circulating among Nigerian isolates.

Background A survey was conducted to determine the prevalence of campylobacteriosis and trichomonosis, and their concurrence with brucellosis, in cattle in three states of northern Nigeria. Methods A total of 602 preputial samples was collected from bulls in 250 herds and tested using culture and identification. Various indigenous and exotic breeds were studied and four major management systems were encountered. Age of the cattle was estimated using dentition, farm records or cornual rings. Results The estimated true animal-level prevalence of Campylobacter fetus infection was 16.4% (95% CI: 13.0-20.7), of which 18.5% was C. f. fetus and 81.5% was C. f. venerealis. Of the latter, 92% were C. f. venerealis biovar intermedius strains. Animal-level prevalences in Adamawa, Kano and Kaduna states were 31.8%, 11.6% and 8.3% respectively, and were highest in bulls >7 years old (33.4%) and in the Gudali breed (28.8%). Of the 250 herds, 78 (25.5%, 95% CI: 19.4-32.7) had at least one infected bull, and herd prevalence was highest in the pastoral management system (43.5%). After adjustment for confounding using multivariable analysis, the odds of C. fetus infection were highest in Adamawa state (P 7 years old (P = 0.01), and tended to be higher in Bos taurus breeds (P = 0.06). There was a strong positive association between the presence of campylobacteriosis and brucellosis (P

The occurrence of antimicrobial drug residues in 500 routinely slaughtered cattle in Zaria, Nigeria, was determined. A microbial inhibition test with Micrococcus luteus ATCC9341 was used to test urine at the time of slaughter for the presence of antimicrobial substances. Thirty-seven (7.4%) of the urine samples were positive for antimicrobial substances. Positive cases were not distributed according to breed (P>0.05), but occurred significantly more in male cattle aged 3–9 years and in those with good body condition score (P