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Abstract Background Meeting daily guidelines for physical activity, screen time, and sleep duration is associated with a host of health indicators for youth. In this cross-sectional observational study, we investigated the associations between adherence to the movement guidelines and health-related outcomes among youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods Parents of youth with ASD (10–17 years) from seven countries and regions were invited to provide online proxy-reports for child’s movement behaviors (i.e., physical activity, sleep and screen time), and health-related outcomes (i.e., body mass index [BMI], general health, and quality of life). A series of multiple linear regression analyses were used to examine the associations between meeting movement guidelines and health-related outcomes, adjusted for covariates. Results The final sample consisted of 1165 youth with ASD. Compared with youth meeting all three guidelines, a higher BMI z-score was observed in those who met no guidelines (B = 0.62, P = 0.04), “sedentary time only” (B = 0.60, P = 0.047), and “physical activity plus sleep only” (B = 0.85, P = 0.04). Compared with meeting all three guidelines, meeting no guidelines was associated with poorer general health (B = − 0.46, P = 0.02). Further, compared with youth meeting all three guidelines, a lower quality of life score was observed in those who met no guidelines (B = − 0.47, P = 0.02) and “physical activity only” (B = − 0.62, P = 0.03). Lastly, there were dose–response associations between the number of guidelines met and all three health-related outcomes (all P trend

Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic is a remarkable health crisis that enforced most people to stay at home and quarantine for a period of time and seems to be having negative impacts on physical activity and mental health worldwide. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a deficit in social interaction characteristics, relationships, and stereotyped behaviors. This study examined Iranian parents’ perceptions of physical activity for their children with ASD during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: In this study, an explanatory qualitative methodology was used and data were collected via semi-structured phone interviews. The samples included 40 Iranian parents (aged 25-50 years) who had children with ASD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 Edition (DSM-5) criteria (aged 7-12 years). Results: The results showed that the parents observed their children’s physical activity to decrease greatly than before the pandemic. Parents experienced weight gain, increased anxiety, increased stereotypic behaviors, and decreased orderliness, communicative interactions, and social skills. The parents stated that, when their children were more active before the COVID-19 pandemic, they were more cheerful, more adaptable, and communicated more verbally. Parents believed that physical activities have positive effects on the development of their children’s physical health and behavior. They also reported some barriers to their children’s participation in physical activity. Conclusion: Participating in daily physical activity and support from parents were consequential factors in the promotion of their physical and behavioral health and the development of their independent performance and quality of life during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression became heightened issues for college-aged young adults during the global pandemic. The main purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a peer-supported exercise intervention on young adults (vs. self-guided exercise) who reported elevated levels of anxiety and/or depression. A parallel group design was used where young adults (n = 27) were randomly assigned to either a peer-supported or self-guided exercise group which lasted for eight weeks. The generalized anxiety and depression subscales of the Counseling Center Assessment of Psychological Symptoms (CCAPS-34) were measured for a baseline and then at 4-week, 8-week, and 12-week follow-up. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) with repetitive measures show that peer-supported and self-guided exercise programs reduced participant anxiety and depression scores; however, intervention decay for the peer-supported exercise intervention was more severe than that for the self-guided group. Self-guided exercise had a longer-lasting effect than the peer-supported alternative and could be a cost-effective approach to combat anxiety and depression issues among young adults.

Background: Health-related fitness knowledge (HRFK) has been an essential concept for many health and physical education programs. There has been limited understanding and longitudinal investigation on HRFK growth. This longitudinal study examined HRFK growth and its individual- and school-level correlates in middle school years under 1 curriculum condition: Five for Life. Methods: Participants were 12,044 students from 47 middle schools. Data were collected at both individual/participant and school/institution levels. Individual-level variables included gender, grade, and HRFK test scores. School-level variables included percentage of students receiving free and reduced meals (FARM), student-to-faculty ratio for physical education, and school academic performance (SAP). We used hierarchical linear modeling to examine HRFK 3-year growth in relation to individual- and school-level correlates. Results: The average HRFK score at 6th grade for females was 42.81% ± 1.32%. The predicted HRFK growth was 17.06% ± 1.02% per year, holding other factors constant. A 1-standard deviation increase in FARM correlated with a 14.68%-point decrease in predicted test score (p = 0.02). A 1-standard deviation increase in SAP was associated with an 11.90%-point increase in HRFK score. Males had a significantly lower growth rate than females during the middle school years (0.78%/year, p = 0.02). Conclusion: The result showed that both individual- and school-level variables such as gender, FARM, and SAP influenced HRFK growth. Educators should heed gender differences in growth curves and recognize the correlates of school-level variables.

Although research supports the feasibility and reliability of health-related physical fitness (HRPF) tests in typically developing children and adolescents, little is known regarding the feasibility and reliability of these tests for those with hearing impairments (HI). The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and reliability of a HRPF test battery for children and adolescents with HI. A test–retest design with a one-week interval was conducted with 26 participants with HI (mean age: 12.7 ± 2.8 years; 9 male). The feasibility and reliability of seven field-based HRPF tests (i.e., body mass index, grip strength, standing long jump, vital capacity, long distance run, sit-and-reach, one leg stand) were evaluated. All the tests showed high feasibility (completion rate > 90%). Six tests indicated good to excellent test–retest reliability (all intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] > 0.75) while the one leg stand test showed poor reliability (ICC = 0.36). Relatively large percentages of standard error of measurement (SEM%) and minimal detectable change (MDC%) were observed in the sit-and-reach test (SEM% = 52.4%, MDC% = 145.2%) and one leg stand test (SEM% = 107.9%, MDC% = 299.2%), whereas the rest of the tests demonstrated reasonable SEM% and MDC% values. Collectively, most of the tests can be feasibly and reliably used to assess HRPF for children and adolescents with HI.

This study aimed to model adolescents’ cardiorespiratory fitness performance change trajectories longitudinally across high school years and its relation to school- and individual/student-level factors. We employed hierarchical linear modeling to examine longitudinal cardiorespiratory fitness performance changes, as measured by the progressive aerobic capacity endurance run (PACER), over the years, between sexes, and in association with the school-level variables. Participants were 76,227 adolescents from 80 high schools in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States. School-level academic performance (SAP), the percent of students eligible for free and reduced-price meals (FARM), and physical education student-faculty ratio were obtained with permission from the school districts. The number of laps completed in PACER test improved throughout the first three years of high school, however, proportions of those within the healthy fitness zone (HFZ) decreased overall from 9th to 11th grade. Furthermore, the number of laps completed by adolescents appeared to have plateaued at 11th grade, with a significant decline during the final year of high school. Sex-based discrepancies in performance in meeting HFZ were evident, where girls significantly outperformed boys during 9th and 10th grades, and boys significantly outperformed girls during 12th grade. Additionally, SAP and FARM were positively and negatively, respectively, significantly associated with PACER performance at the school level. The odds ratio of adolescents performing in the HFZ declined significantly over the years, even though the number of PACER laps improved in the first three years. Concerted efforts should be targeted at improving cardiorespiratory fitness in high school due to its positive relationship to academic achievement in schools, and negative association with cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, obesity, and all-cause mortality in adulthood.

Introduction: Para-Badminton (PBd) is an adapted sport for people with disabilities. One avenue to make badminton popular around the world is a badminton teaching program called “Shuttle Time”. This resource helps coaches develop skills, knowledge and confidence to plan and offer safe and fun badminton classes. Objective: The purposes of this report were to apply the “Shuttle Time” teaching program for persons with physical disabilities (PD), to adapt activities proposed by the program, if necessary, and describe suggestions for the adaptations. Conclusion: The final observations in this report refer to the adaptations of the “Shuttle Time” teaching program for persons with PD, by supplementing it with more activities can better serve children with PD, supporting badminton teaching to this population.

The purpose of this study was to examine if adolescents who experience anxiety or depression have higher levels of reported bullying victimization or perpetration than those who do not. Based on the existing research, we hypothesized that those who experienced moderate or severe depression and anxiety would have higher rates of bullying victimization and perpetration when compared to those who experienced mild or no depression. This study used an observational design, and data were collected from a convenience sample of adolescents in a large regional high school in an Eastern province of China. The final sample included 1481 adolescents aged 14–19 years who provided complete data for each of the study variables. Demographic data were collected through a four-item demographic survey, bullying perpetration and victimization data were collected using subscales from the Illinois Bully Scale, and anxiety and depression were measured using the Chinese version of the General Anxiety Disorder-7 scale and the Patient Health Questionnaire, respectively. Descriptive analyses, correlational analyses, and multivariate analysis of covariance were used to analyze the data. About 7.1% and 15.2% of participants reported moderate-to-severe depression or moderate-to-severe anxiety, respectively. Pairwise comparisons indicated that adolescents with no or mild depression had significantly lower bullying perpetration than those with moderate-to-severe depression, but those with no or mild anxiety had significantly higher perpetration than those with moderate-to-severe anxiety. There was no statistically significant difference in victimization among different anxiety or depression levels alone (all p-values ≥ 0.05). This is among the first studies to examine reported levels of bullying perpetration and victimization among adolescents experiencing anxiety and depression. The findings help to identify adolescents who experience moderate-to-severe levels of depression as an at-risk group for bullying perpetration, who should therefore be a focus of bullying intervention work.

This cross-sectional observational study sought to examine the environmental correlates of physical activity and screen-time among youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Parents of youth with ASD (n = 1,165) from seven countries/regions provided responses to an online survey form measuring environmental correlates (i.e., physical activity neighborhood environment, social network, social trust and cohesion, bedroom media, social home environment) and outcomes (i.e., physical activity, screen-time). Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to determine environmental predictors of the outcomes. Physical activity neighborhood environment (B = 0.15, p = 0.047), social network (B = 0.16, p = 0.02), and social home environment (B = 1.07, p < 0.001) were significantly associated with physical activity, whereas social trust and cohesion and bedroom media were not. Further, social trust and cohesion (B = -0.14, p = 0.001), bedroom media (B = 0.10, p = 0.001), and social home environment (B = -0.16, p < 0.001) were significantly associated with screen-time while neighborhood environment and social network were not. The identified environmental attributes of physical activity and screen-time behaviors should be targeted for health promotion among youth with ASD.

Background: The Gopher FITStep Pro (GFSP) is a commercially available objective physical activity monitor that records steps taken and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the GFSP for measuring steps taken in a guided walking condition and MVPA during planned fitness activities. Method: University-aged participants (N = 35, Mage = 20) wore two GFSP (right and left side) pedometers and one ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer during both conditions. Results: Paired samples t-tests determined that self-step counts in the guided walking condition were not significantly different than the right side GFSP (p = .084) but were significantly different from the left side GFSP (p = .006). Mean absolute percent error (MAPE) was less than 3% between self-step counts with the left (1.9%) and right side GFPS (1.7%). However, MVPA estimates were significantly different between the GT3X+ accelerometer and the left side and right side GFSP (p

The purpose of this study was to investigate undergraduate kinesiology students’ experiences in an online life span motor development course. This study was based on theory of transactional distance (Moore, 1997). Seven undergraduate kinesiology majors (5 females, 2 males), who were enrolled in an online course at a Midwestern public university in the US, participated in this study. Data collection included face-to-face open ended interviews, bulletin board discussion logs, and online assessment projects. A constant comparative method was used to interpret the data, and allowed themes to emerge from the data as well as from the theoretical framework. Three interrelated themes emerged from the undergraduate students’ narratives; rigors and flexibility in online course learning, peer feedback experiences, and video assessment analysis. The results of this study demonstrate that undergraduate students can have independent learning styles and kinesthetic characteristics and concepts when enrolled in online life span motor development coursework. Online kinesiology courses should be centered on a set of student tasks (lectures, projects, and assignments) that constitute the learning experiences that engage students, either independently and collaboratively, in order for them to master the objectives of the course (Carr-Chellman & Duchastel, 2001).

While research has explored pre-service teacher views and experiences with disability simulations, none thus far has centered those that decide how and why such simulations are used, namely, teacher educators. Our research explores physical education teacher educator views and experiences of visual impairment simulations, as well as their perspectives toward simulations after reading reflections of visually impaired people themselves about this pedagogical task. Vignettes describing teacher educators' use of simulations, together with the narratives of visually impaired people about simulations, were used during individual interviews with eight physical education teacher educators to support them to reflect on their own views and experiences of visual impairment simulations. All qualitative data that were generated from these interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically. Nearly all participants, at first, discussed the value of visual impairment simulations, focusing specifically on how they could support pre-service teachers to 'know', 'understand' and 'feel' how physical education is experienced by visually impaired people. Once the narratives of visually impaired people were introduced and discussed during interview, they went some way to supporting some participants to critically reflect on the ethics, authenticity, and pedagogical potential of disability simulations for preparing pre-service teachers for teaching visually impaired students. Whether engagement with the narratives of visually impaired people about simulation, or indeed anything else relating to their embodied views and experiences of physical education, will influence the way that teacher educators think about disability, visual impairment, inclusion, physical education, or teacher education in the long-term is for future research to explore.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore blind and visually impaired students' opinions on ways to improve physical education. Method: Twenty-two blind and visually impaired youth (age 12-17 years) completed one-to-one interviews. Three themes were constructed using a reflexive thematic analysis approach. Findings: The first theme depicted participants' views that physical education was a break during the day that did not have educational benefits. In the second theme, the participants highlighted communication and collaboration as important elements that could improve their experiences. The final theme centered on the nonexistent, insufficient, or demoralizing nature of seldom existing accommodations. Discussion: Blind and visually impaired students noted aspects of curriculum content, communication, and accommodations in physical education that may be changed to enhance their experiences, which largely centered on their physical educators' behaviors.

This study explored visually impaired youths' perspectives toward feeling valued in integrated physical education. Situated in an experiential qualitative approach, this study utilized inclusion understood as an intersubjective experience broadly, and feeling valued specifically, as a conceptual lens to guide and inform methodological and data interpretation decisions. Eighteen visually impaired youth completed two interviews each using video conference technology or phone call, and audio recorded, transcribed, and subjected to reflexive thematic analysis. Three interrelated themes were constructed, depicting the participants experiences and perspectives of what it means to be valued, and if they felt valued, within integrated physical education: (a) feeling valued is contingent on others, (b) value is unavailable without accessibility, and (c) being valued for possessing (non-athletic) characteristics. Participants described feeling valued or unvalued based on accommodative (e.g. peers acknowledging their impairment) or un-accommodative (e.g. teachers forgetting their impairment and needs) experiences with others within the PE context.

In this article, we amplify the voices of visually impaired people to explore the authenticity of simulating visual impairment (VI) as a means of developing empathy among sighted student teachers. Participants were nine visually impaired adults who read vignettes narrating simulation experiences of student teachers in a university setting before being interviewed. Interviews were conducted via telephone, and were recorded, transcribed, and analysed thematically. The discussed themes are: (1) Involving visually impaired people in simulations increases authenticity; (2) Visual impairment is too diverse and complex to be authentically replicated; (3) The suddenness and duration of the simulations are inauthentic; and (4) Removal of blindfolds compromises the authenticity of the experience. Most of our participants were sceptical that VI could ever be authentically simulated because it was too diverse and complex for sighted people to embody. However, given its potential for facilitating the pedagogical learning of student teachers, we propose the involvement of disabled people in the construction and, if possible, delivery of disability simulations and a change of focus relating to the aim, purpose and claims made about disability simulations. Specifically, we encourage a move away from endeavouring to simulate VI in order to live and embody it, towards teacher educators working with visually impaired people and using equipment such as blindfold and VI glasses to facilitate pedagogical learning that may be of value when teaching visually impaired and sighted pupils. In short, we should not claim to "simulate VI" but rather use specialist equipment for pedagogical purposes.

A variety of pedagogical practices have been proposed, described, and promoted by scholars in an effort to help enhance the experiences of visually impaired students in integrated physical education. Trained peer tutoring, where a nondisabled student is trained to serve as a peer tutor for a disabled student, is among them. However, little research has been done that engages directly with visually impaired students about their views and experiences with these pedagogical practices. Using belonging as a conceptual lens to guide and inform methodological and data interpretation decisions, our purpose was to elicit the views of visually impaired youth regarding the use of trained peer tutors in integrated physical education classes. Sixteen visually impaired youth completed two interviews about their views toward physical education generally and the concept of peer tutoring specifically. Interviews were conducted via video conference technology, and were recorded, transcribed, and subjected to thematic analysis. Three interrelated themes were constructed that depict the participants views toward the concept of peer tutoring: (a) peer tutoring might enhance belonging … maybe, (b) shouldn't this just happen naturally?, and (c) this is not for me. The themes provide insights into the views of visually impaired youth toward peer tutoring as a strategy that may not be supportive of feelings of belonging within integrated physical education. Rather, participants were largely dismissive of the strategy, suggesting that any help needed within this context should be navigated outside of formal pedagogical strategies that may alienate visually impaired students by identifying them as 'needing help'. These findings support suggestions for physical educators to implement this practice only after first permitting students to engage with friends to navigate physical education spaces, and then only afterwards at the discretion of the student.

Universal design for learning (UDL) has been advocated for by adapted physical education scholars as a panacea to the challenges associated with teaching disabled and nondisabled students together in physical education. So much so that UDL currently occupies a privileged and largely unquestioned position in adapted physical education scholarship and practice, until now. To move scholarship forward, this article draws on published theoretical and empirical work relating to UDL generally and in physical education in particular to critically discuss the scientific research supporting, or not, the use of UDL as a so-called inclusive approach. We end this article with a call to action for scholars in this field, ourselves included, to conduct theoretically guided and empirically informed research relating to UDL in physical education, which adheres to established hallmarks of research quality that are tied to the ontological and epistemological assumptions of researchers because, at present, it is conspicuous by its absence.

Background: Normative motor skill assessments occupy a privileged position in physical education scholarship and practice. So much so, in fact, they manifest as commonsense cultural arrangements in most movement contexts, including adapted physical education. The proliferation of such tools has generally been uncontested, until now. Purpose: We argue that normative motor skill assessments have ableist underpinnings and consequently may do more to subordinate, rather than empower disabled children. More specifically, we suggest that normative motor assessment tools and criteria, perhaps unintentionally, highlight what is perceived to be wrong, bad, and faulty about the ways disabled bodies look and move, thus reinforcing ableist norms and values relating to ability. Conclusions: We end by encouraging adapted physical education scholars and practitioners to critically reflect on ableist notions of ability, particularly as they relate to movement competence, and to work with disabled children because of their embodied experiences to co-design assessments that are more meaningful to disabled children.

Rooted in contact theory, the Paralympic Skill Lab (PSL) program is designed to guide participants toward recognizing and understanding the experiences of disabled people to support new pathways of thought and changed attitudes. The purpose of this inquiry was to explore the experiences of college students in a goalball and sitting volleyball focused PSL program and their attitudes and perceptions about disability and disability sport. This study utilized an experiential qualitative approach. Participants were fifty-seven college students who took part in a PSL event. Data were collected via reflective writing responses. Written materials were analyzed inductively using a three-step process: immersion in the data, bracketing the data, and determining emergent themes. Analysis revealed three themes related to the participants' experiences during the PSL event (a) "I realized that there was no need for having low expectations for Paralympic athletes:" "Breaking down bias"; (b) "It made them real people, with real thoughts and real beliefs:" Humanizing through contact, and (b) "My closed-minded thinking thought they all would have a prosthetic leg or have a mind disease:" "Deconstructing assumptions." The findings support the value of PSL as a mechanism for learning and engagement through experience, with clear implications for practice. Future research should explore different types of Paralympic activities offered in the PSL program.

Of the little written about educational exclusion, much of it considers exclusion as disabled students experiencing less access, opportunities and participation in education when compared to their nondisabled same-aged peers. Our article aims to move beyond these narrow, parochial, and reductive postulates by centering the inter- and intra-subjectivities of disabled students to conceptualize exclusion as experiences with internalized ableism and psycho-emotional disablement that may (or may not) be experienced in any or all material and social spaces in education. We cast light on ableism and psycho-emotional disablement in education so that we and others can challenge, disrupt, and transform it given that it can impact negatively on the wellbeing of disabled students. We end by encouraging researchers to explore how ableism permeates the ideologies, discourses, logics, and traditions of education systems, and for policy makers, school leaders, and teachers to experience anti-disablism training and to adopt an anti-ableist perspective.

This study examined how students with orthopedic impairments experienced strategies identified in the literature to support 'inclusion'. An interpretative phenomenological analysis research approach was used, and six students with orthopedic impairments (age 10-14 years) served as participants. Data sources were written prompts, semi-structured, audiotaped interviews, and reflective interview notes. Based on thematic data analysis, four themes were constructed: "It's kind of embarrassing": experiences with support; "I don't want to be different": equipment, activity, and rule modifications; "I like to be a part of the conversation": autonomy and choice in PE; and "I would rather be like the other students": discussing disability. The experiences portrayed through these themes highlighted the differential effects of these explicated strategies, where each strategy contributed to feelings of inclusion, as well as marginalization among participants. As such, the findings indicated that 'inclusive' strategies should not be considered as blanket recommendations; instead, attempts to promote 'inclusion' of students with disabilities should start with a reflexive look at the unique needs of each individual student.

Research indicates that individuals with visual impairments tend not to meet the physical activity guidelines for health promotion. Existing literature has identified barriers to physical activity as having the potential to impact the physical activity engagement of this population. Most studies of barriers to physical activity among populations with visual impairments have used instruments developed for other groups. However, scholars within the field of adapted physical activity recommended the development and use of instruments designed to address the needs and characteristics of specific disability groups. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop and validate a brief scale designed to measure the magnitude of barriers to physical activity for use among adults with visual impairments. The instrument was developed in four phases: (a) item development, (b) content validity, (c) exploratory factor analysis, and (d) confirmatory factor analysis. Factor analyses yielded 12 items across three barrier factors (i.e., accessibility, personal, and transportation). The Barriers to Physical Activity for Adults with Visual Impairment scale is a valid and reliable measure of barriers to physical activity for this population.

Introduction: Children who are deafblind have unique educational needs, especially when it comes to developing a foundation for recreation. This foundation includes a well-rounded physical education program. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of adults who are deafblind as they recall their involvement in physical education and transition planning relating to recreation. Methods: A panel of experts validated a questionnaire related to participation in physical education, the Individual Education Program (IEP), and transition meetings. Individuals who are deafblind were interviewed at the Seabeck Deafblind Retreat and at the International Deafblind Expo in Orlando, Florida. Data were analyzed by demographics, frequency counts, and qualitative responses to the open-ended questions. Results: The study had three major findings: (1) Most participants were involved in their IEP meetings, yet the physical education teacher was not included in these meetings and the need for physical education and accommodations during physical education were not typically addressed. (2) Most participants attended their transition meetings, yet most never discussed recreation or physical activity--let alone how to overcome barriers to their preferred activities. (3) The majority of participants revealed that they are currently not involved in the recreation activities that they want to be. They expressed dissatisfaction with the support they received in the transition process that would have enhanced quality recreation in their lives. Discussion: Based on the results presented here, participants were dissatisfied with the lack of physical education teacher involvement with IEP meetings and the limited discussion of recreation and physical activity during transition, which may have caused them to be less prepared for engagement in physical activity and recreation as adults than they might have been if more attention had been paid to these issues. Ensuring that professional preparation programs in both physical education and deafblind education emphasize the importance of modifications to the physical education curriculum as well as involvement of the whole multidisciplinary team in IEP meetings can set the student up for a successful adult life. Last, transition meetings should include the student's preferred recreation and physical activities as well as discuss the barriers to those activities. Including these topics in every transition meeting may help adolescents who are deafblind navigate their preferred recreation activities in their future. Implications for practitioners: Training for current interveners and deafblind specialists should include ideas for modification to physical education. In addition, training for physical education teachers should include how to modify activities for children and youths who are deafblind. Transition training programs throughout the United States should include information about the children's recreation interests (inside and outside of the home) as well as how to overcome barriers they may face in accessing those choices.

The purpose of this paper was to review the published research literature on fundamental motor skills (FMS) for school-aged individuals with visual impairment by describing study characteristics and major findings of the extant literature. Keyword searches were used to identify articles from electronic databases published between 1982 and 2014. Eleven articles met all inclusion criteria, and relevant data were extracted from them. Of the 11 studies, six were comparative, two were correlational, two were validation studies, one was descriptive, and none were interventions. Major findings suggest that, in comparison to peers without disabilities, those with visual impairments tend to perform significantly greater delays in FMS.