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Focal Cortical Dysplasias (FCDs) are a common subtype of malformation of cortical development, which frequently present with a spectrum of cognitive and behavioural abnormalities as well as pharmacoresistant epilepsy. FCD type II is typically caused by somatic mutations resulting in mTOR hyperactivity, and is the commonest pathology found in children undergoing epilepsy surgery. However, surgical resection does not always result in seizure freedom, and is often precluded by proximity to eloquent brain regions. Gene therapy is a promising potential alternative treatment and may be appropriate in cases that represent an unacceptable surgical risk. Here, we evaluated a gene therapy based on overexpression of the Kv1.1 potassium channel in a mouse model of frontal lobe FCD. An engineered potassium channel (EKC) transgene was placed under control of a human promoter that biases expression towards principal neurons (CAMK2A) and packaged in an adeno-associated viral vector (AAV9). We used an established FCD model generated byin uteroelectroporation of frontal lobe neural progenitors with a constitutively active humanRHEBplasmid, an activator of mTOR Complex 1. First, we further characterised this by quantifying electrocorticograms and behavioural abnormalities, both in mice developing spontaneous generalised seizures and in mice only exhibiting abnormal interictal discharges. Then, using continuous video-electrocorticogram recordings from epileptic mice before and after injection of AAV9-CAMK2A-EKC in the dysplastic region, we observed a robust decrease in the frequency of seizures and in interictal activity, compared to mice injected with a control viral vector. Despite the robust anti-epileptic effect of the treatment, there was neither an improvement nor a worsening of performance in behavioural tests sensitive to frontal lobe function. AAV9-CAMK2A-EKC had no effect on interictal activity or behaviour in non-epileptic mice. AAV9-CAMK2A-EKC gene therapy is a promising therapy with translational potential to treat the epileptic phenotype of mTOR-related malformations of cortical development. Cognitive and behavioural co-morbidities may, however, resist an intervention aimed at reducing circuit excitability.

Opticin is an extracellular glycoprotein present in the vitreous. Its antiangiogenic properties offer the potential for therapeutic intervention in conditions such as proliferative diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity. Here, we investigated the hypothesis that intravitreal administration of recombinant human opticin can safely protect against the development of pathological angiogenesis and promote its regression. We generated and purified recombinant human opticin and investigated its impact on the development and regression of pathological retinal neovascularization following intravitreal administration in murine oxygen-induced retinopathy. We also investigated its effect on normal retinal vascular development and function, following intravitreal injection in neonatal mice, by histological examination and electroretinography. In oxygen-induced retinopathy, intravitreal administration of human recombinant opticin protected against the development of retinal neovascularization to similar extent as aflibercept, which targets VEGF. Opticin also accelerated regression of established retinal neovascularization, though the effect at 18 h was less than that of aflibercept. Intravitreal administration of human recombinant opticin in neonatal mice caused no detectable perturbation of subsequent retinal vascular development or function. In summary we found that intraocular administration of recombinant human opticin protects against the development of pathological angiogenesis in mice and promotes its regression.

The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs), often referred to as Batten disease, are inherited lysosomal storage disorders that represent the most common neurodegeneration during childhood. Symptoms include seizures, vision loss, motor and cognitive decline, and premature death. The development of brain-directed treatments for NCLs has made noteworthy progress in recent years. Clinical trials are currently ongoing or planned for different forms of the disease. Despite these promising advances, it is unlikely that therapeutic interventions targeting the brain will prevent loss of vision in patients as retinal cells remain untreated and will continue to degenerate. Here, we demonstrate that Cln3(Δex7/8) mice, a mouse model of CLN3 Batten disease with juvenile onset, suffer from a decline in inner retinal function resulting from the death of rod bipolar cells, interneurons vital for signal transmission from photoreceptors to ganglion cells in the retina. We also show that this ocular phenotype can be treated by adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated expression of CLN3 in cells of the inner retina, leading to significant survival of bipolar cells and preserved retinal function. In contrast, the treatment of photoreceptors, which are lost in patients at late disease stages, was not therapeutic in Cln3(Δex7/8) mice, underlining the notion that CLN3 disease is primarily a disease of the inner retina with secondary changes in the outer retina. These data indicate that bipolar cells play a central role in this disease and identify this cell type as an important target for ocular AAV-based gene therapies for CLN3 disease.

Opticin is an endogenous vitreous glycoprotein that may have therapeutic potential as it has been shown that supra-normal concentrations supress preretinal neovascularisation. Herein we investigated the pharmacokinetics of opticin following intravitreal injection in rabbits. To measure simultaneously concentrations of human and rabbit opticin, a selected reaction monitoring mass spectrometry assay was developed. The mean concentration of endogenous rabbit opticin in 7 uninjected eyes was measured and found to be 19.2 nM or 0.62 µg/ml. When the vitreous was separated by centrifugation into a supernatant and collagen-containing pellet, 94 % of the rabbit opticin was in the supernatant. Intravitreal injection of human opticin (40 µg) into both eyes of rabbits was followed by enucleation at 5 h, 24 h, 72 h, 7 days, 14 days and 28 days post-injection (n=6 at each time point) and measurement of vitreous human and rabbit opticin concentrations in the supernatant and collagen-containing pellet following centrifugation. The volume of distribution of human opticin was calculated to be 3.31 ml and the vitreous half-life 4.2 days. Assuming that rabbit and human opticin are cleared from rabbit vitreous at the same rate, opticin is secreted into the vitreous at a rate of 0.14 µg/day. We conclude that intravitreally injected opticin has a vitreous half-life that is similar to currently available anti-angiogenic therapeutics. Whilst opticin was first identified bound to vitreous collagen fibrils, here we demonstrate that >90% of endogenous opticin is not bound to collagen. Endogenous opticin is secreted by the non-pigmented ciliary epithelium into the rabbit vitreous at a remarkably high rate and the turnover in vitreous is approximately 15% per day.

Macular degeneration is the leading cause of blindness in the developed world. Whilst most patients lose sight owing to atrophic changes, no treatments currently exist that improve the vision deficit due to atrophy. Here, we identify loss of lateral inhibition as a specific mechanism by which photoreceptor degeneration reduces visual function beyond the atrophic area. We find that this inhibition is adaptive, and that if modulated can improve visual function, making inhibitory circuits an unexpected therapeutic target for age related macular degeneration and related disorders.

The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs), more commonly referred to as Batten disease, are a group of inherited lysosomal storage disorders that present with neurodegeneration, loss of vision and premature death. There are at least 13 genetically distinct forms of NCL. Enzyme replacement therapies and pre-clinical studies on gene supplementation have shown promising results for NCLs caused by lysosomal enzyme deficiencies. The development of gene therapies targeting the brain for NCLs caused by defects in transmembrane proteins has been more challenging and only limited therapeutic effects in animal models have been achieved so far. Here, we describe the development of an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated gene therapy to treat the neurodegeneration in a mouse model of CLN6 disease, a form of NCL with a deficiency in the membrane-bound protein CLN6. We show that neonatal bilateral intracerebroventricular injections with AAV9 carrying CLN6 increase lifespan by more than 90%, maintain motor skills and motor coordination and reduce neuropathological hallmarks of Cln6-deficient mice up to 23 months post vector administration. These data demonstrate that brain-directed gene therapy is a valid strategy to treat the neurodegeneration of CLN6 disease and may be applied to other forms of NCL caused by transmembrane protein deficiencies in the future.

In the adult central nervous system, endothelial and neuronal cells engage in tight cross-talk as key components of the so-called neurovascular unit. Impairment of their critical relationship adversely affects tissue homeostasis, as observed in neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. In development, the influence of neuroprogenitor cells on angiogenesis is poorly understood. Here, we show that these cells interact intimately with the growing retinal vascular network, and we identify a novel regulatory mechanism of vasculature development mediated by hypoxia-inducible factor 2a (Hif2a). By Cre-lox gene excision, we show that Hif2a in retinal neuroprogenitor cells upregulates the expression of the pro-angiogenic mediators vascular endothelial growth factor and erythropoietin, whereas it locally downregulates the angiogenesis inhibitor endostatin. Importantly, absence of Hif2a in retinal neuroprogenitor cells causes a marked reduction of proliferating endothelial cells at the angiogenic front. This results in delayed retinal vascular development, fewer major retinal vessels and reduced density of the peripheral deep retinal vascular plexus. Our findings demonstrate that retinal neuroprogenitor cells are a critical component of the developing neurovascular unit.

The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are inherited lysosomal storage disorders characterized by general neurodegeneration and premature death. Sight loss is also a major symptom in NCLs, severely affecting the quality of life of patients, but it is not targeted effectively by brain-directed therapies. Here we set out to explore the therapeutic potential of an ocular gene therapy to treat sight loss in NCL due to a deficiency in the transmembrane protein CLN6. We found that, although Cln6nclf mice presented mainly with photoreceptor degeneration, supplementation of CLN6 in photoreceptors was not beneficial. Because the level of CLN6 is low in photoreceptors but high in bipolar cells (retinal interneurons that are only lost in Cln6-deficient mice at late disease stages), we explored the therapeutic effects of delivering CLN6 to bipolar cells using adeno-associated virus (AAV) serotype 7m8. Bipolar cell-specific expression of CLN6 slowed significantly the loss of photoreceptor function and photoreceptor cells. This study shows that the deficiency of a gene normally expressed in bipolar cells can cause the loss of photoreceptors and that this can be prevented by bipolar cell-directed treatment.

The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are inherited lysosomal storage disorders characterized by general neurodegeneration and premature death. Sight loss is also a major symptom in NCLs, severely affecting the quality of life of patients, but it is not targeted effectively by brain-directed therapies. Here we set out to explore the therapeutic potential of an ocular gene therapy to treat sight loss in NCL due to a deficiency in the transmembrane protein CLN6. We found that, although Cln6(nclf) mice presented mainly with photoreceptor degeneration, supplementation of CLN6 in photoreceptors was not beneficial. Because the level of CLN6 is low in photoreceptors but high in bipolar cells (retinal interneurons that are only lost in Cln6-deficient mice at late disease stages), we explored the therapeutic effects of delivering CLN6 to bipolar cells using adeno-associated virus (AAV) serotype 7m8. Bipolar cell-specific expression of CLN6 slowed significantly the loss of photoreceptor function and photoreceptor cells. This study shows that the deficiency of a gene normally expressed in bipolar cells can cause the loss of photoreceptors and that this can be prevented by bipolar cell-directed treatment.