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Abstract Background Bidirectional crosstalk between HER2 and estrogen receptor (ER) pathways may influence outcomes and the efficacy of endocrine therapy (ET). Low HER2 expression levels (HER2-low) have emerged as a predictive biomarker in patients with breast cancer (BC). Methods PALLAS is an open, international, phase 3 study evaluating the addition of palbociclib for 2 years to adjuvant ET in patients with stage II-III ER-positive/HER2-negative BC. To assess the impact of HER2 expression on patient outcomes in the phase III PALLAS trial, we analyzed (1) the association between rate of HER2-low with demographic and clinicopathological parameters, (2) the prognostic value of HER2-low status on invasive disease-free survival (iDFS), distant relapse-free survival (DRFS), and overall survival (OS) and (3) HER2 expression’s value as a predictive biomarker of response to palbociclib. HER2-low was defined as HER2 immunohistochemistry (IHC) 1 + or IHC 2 + with negative in situ hybridization (ISH). All pathologic evaluation was performed locally. Prognostic and predictive power of HER2 were assessed with Cox models. Results From the original PALLAS intention-to-treat population (N = 5753), 5304 patients (92.2%) were included in this analysis. Among these, 2254 patients (42.5%) were classified as having HER2 IHC 0 (HER2-0), and 3050 (57.5%) as having HER2-low disease (1838 with IHC 1 + and 1212 with IHC 2 +). Median follow-up was 59.8 months. HER2-low prevalence varied significantly across 21 participating countries (range 16.7% to 75.6%; p

Abstract Immune checkpoint inhibitor-mediated colitis (IMC) is a common adverse event of treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI). We hypothesize that genetic susceptibility to Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) predisposes to IMC. In this study, we first develop a polygenic risk scores for CD (PRSCD) and UC (PRSUC) in cancer-free individuals and then test these PRSs on IMC in a cohort of 1316 patients with ICI-treated non-small cell lung cancer and perform a replication in 873 ICI-treated pan-cancer patients. In a meta-analysis, the PRSUC predicts all-grade IMC (ORmeta=1.35 per standard deviation [SD], 95% CI = 1.12–1.64, P = 2×10−03) and severe IMC (ORmeta=1.49 per SD, 95% CI = 1.18–1.88, P = 9×10−04). PRSCD is not associated with IMC. Furthermore, PRSUC predicts severe IMC among patients treated with combination ICIs (ORmeta=2.20 per SD, 95% CI = 1.07–4.53, P = 0.03). Overall, PRSUC can identify patients receiving ICI at risk of developing IMC and may be useful to monitor patients and improve patient outcomes.

Abstract Background Patients with inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) have overall poor clinical outcomes, with triple-negative IBC (TN-IBC) being associated with the worst survival, warranting the investigation of novel therapies. Preclinical studies implied that ruxolitinib (RUX), a JAK1/2 inhibitor, may be an effective therapy for TN-IBC. Methods We conducted a randomized phase II study with nested window-of-opportunity in TN-IBC. Treatment-naïve patients received a 7-day run-in of RUX alone or RUX plus paclitaxel (PAC). After the run-in, those who received RUX alone proceeded to neoadjuvant therapy with either RUX + PAC or PAC alone for 12 weeks; those who had received RUX + PAC continued treatment for 12 weeks. All patients subsequently received 4 cycles of doxorubicin plus cyclophosphamide prior to surgery. Research tumor biopsies were performed at baseline (pre-run-in) and after run-in therapy. Tumors were evaluated for phosphorylated STAT3 (pSTAT3) by immunostaining, and a subset was also analyzed by RNA-seq. The primary endpoint was the percent of pSTAT3-positive pre-run-in tumors that became pSTAT3-negative. Secondary endpoints included pathologic complete response (pCR). Results Overall, 23 patients were enrolled, of whom 21 completed preoperative therapy. Two patients achieved pCR (8.7%). pSTAT3 and IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signaling decreased in post-run-in biopsies of RUX-treated samples, while sustained treatment with RUX + PAC upregulated IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signaling compared to RUX alone. Both treatments decreased GZMB+ T cells implying immune suppression. RUX alone effectively inhibited JAK/STAT3 signaling but its combination with PAC led to incomplete inhibition. The immune suppressive effects of RUX alone and in combination may negate its growth inhibitory effects on cancer cells. Conclusion In summary, the use of RUX in TN-IBC was associated with a decrease in pSTAT3 levels despite lack of clinical benefit. Cancer cell-specific-targeting of JAK2/STAT3 or combinations with immunotherapy may be required for further evaluation of JAK2/STAT3 signaling as a cancer therapeutic target. Trial registration www.clinicaltrials.gov , NCT02876302. Registered 23 August 2016.

ABSTRACTImmune-related adverse events (irAEs) are side effects of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy (ICI). While common irAEs have been well characterized, there are more limited data on rare immune related adverse events (RirAEs) due to low incidence. Lack of characterization of these entities has led to difficulties in accurate diagnosis and management. Here, we conducted a multi-institution analysis of all patients with stage III/IV melanoma who developed RirAEs after being treated with ICIs (anti-PD-1/L1, anti-CTLA-4, and combination PD-1/CTLA-4 blockade) at three institutions (Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Melanoma Institute of Australia). RirAEs were defined as those occurring in approximately

Abstract Aim Deregulated signaling pathways are a hallmark feature of oncogenesis and driver of tumor progression. Dual specificity protein phosphatase 4 (DUSP4) is a critical negative regulator of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and is often deleted or epigenetically silenced in tumors. DUSP4 alterations lead to hyperactivation of MAPK signaling in many cancers, including breast cancer, which often harbor mutations in cell cycle checkpoint genes, particularly in TP53. Methods Using a genetically engineered mouse model, we generated mammary-specific Dusp4-deleted primary epithelial cells to investigate the necessary conditions in which DUSP4 loss may drive breast cancer oncogenesis. Results We found that Dusp4 loss alone is insufficient in mediating tumorigenesis, but alternatively converges with loss in Trp53 and MYC amplification to induce tumorigenesis primarily through chromosome 5 amplification, which specifically upregulates Dbf4, a cell cycle gene that promotes cellular replication by mediating cell cycle checkpoint escape. Conclusions This study identifies a novel mechanism for breast tumorigenesis implicating Dusp4 loss and p53 mutations in cellular acquisition of Dbf4 upregulation as a driver of cellular replication and cell cycle checkpoint escape.

Triple negative breast cancers (TNBCs) are tumors with a poor treatment response and prognosis. In this study, we propose a new approach, candidate extraction from convolutional neural network (CNN) elements (CECE), for discovery of biomarkers for TNBCs. We used the GSE96058 and GSE81538 datasets to build a CNN model to classify TNBCs and non-TNBCs and used the model to make TNBC predictions for two additional datasets, the cancer genome atlas (TCGA) breast cancer RNA sequencing data and the data from Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center (FUSCC). Using correctly predicted TNBCs from the GSE96058 and TCGA datasets, we calculated saliency maps for these subjects and extracted the genes that the CNN model used to separate TNBCs from non-TNBCs. Among the TNBC signature patterns that the CNN models learned from the training data, we found a set of 21 genes that can classify TNBCs into two major classes, or CECE subtypes, with distinct overall survival rates (P = 0.0074). We replicated this subtype classification in the FUSCC dataset using the same 21 genes, and the two subtypes had similar differential overall survival rates (P = 0.0490). When all TNBCs were combined from the 3 datasets, the CECE II subtype had a hazard ratio of 1.94 (95% CI, 1.25–3.01; P = 0.0032). The results demonstrate that the spatial patterns learned by the CNN models can be utilized to discover interacting biomarkers otherwise unlikely to be identified by traditional approaches.

Triple negative breast cancer can be divided into additional subtypes. Here, using omics analyses, the authors show that in the mesenchymal subtype expression of MHC-1 is repressed and that this can be restored by using drugs that target subunits of the epigenetic modifier PRC2.

Abstract Background Transcriptome sequencing has been broadly available in clinical studies. However, it remains a challenge to utilize these data effectively for clinical applications due to the high dimension of the data and the highly correlated expression between individual genes. Methods We proposed a method to transform RNA sequencing data into artificial image objects (AIOs) and applied convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithms to classify these AIOs. With the AIO technique, we considered each gene as a pixel in an image and its expression level as pixel intensity. Using the GSE96058 (n = 2976), GSE81538 (n = 405), and GSE163882 (n = 222) datasets, we created AIOs for the subjects and designed CNN models to classify biomarker Ki67 and Nottingham histologic grade (NHG). Results With fivefold cross-validation, we accomplished a classification accuracy and AUC of 0.821 ± 0.023 and 0.891 ± 0.021 for Ki67 status. For NHG, the weighted average of categorical accuracy was 0.820 ± 0.012, and the weighted average of AUC was 0.931 ± 0.006. With GSE96058 as training data and GSE81538 as testing data, the accuracy and AUC for Ki67 were 0.826 ± 0.037 and 0.883 ± 0.016, and that for NHG were 0.764 ± 0.052 and 0.882 ± 0.012, respectively. These results were 10% better than the results reported in the original studies. For Ki67, the calls generated from our models had a better power for prediction of survival as compared to the calls from trained pathologists in survival analyses. Conclusions We demonstrated that RNA sequencing data could be transformed into AIOs and be used to classify Ki67 status and NHG with CNN algorithms. The AIO method could handle high-dimensional data with highly correlated variables, and there was no need for variable selection. With the AIO technique, a data-driven, consistent, and automation-ready model could be developed to classify biomarkers with RNA sequencing data and provide more efficient care for cancer patients.

Immunotherapy has become a key therapeutic strategy in the treatment of many cancers. As a result, research efforts have been aimed at understanding mechanisms of resistance to immunotherapy and how anti-tumor immune response can be therapeutically enhanced. It has been shown that tumor cell recognition by the immune system plays a key role in effective response to T cell targeting therapies in patients. One mechanism by which tumor cells can avoid immunosurveillance is through the downregulation of Major Histocompatibility Complex I (MHC-I). Downregulation of MHC-I has been described as a mechanism of intrinsic and acquired resistance to immunotherapy in patients with cancer. Depending on the mechanism, the downregulation of MHC-I can sometimes be therapeutically restored to aid in anti-tumor immunity. In this article, we will review current research in MHC-I downregulation and its impact on immunotherapy response in patients, as well as possible strategies for therapeutic upregulation of MHC-I.

When compartmentally mislocalized within cells, nucleic acids can be exceptionally immunostimulatory and can even trigger the immune-mediated elimination of cancer. Specifically, the accumulation of double-stranded DNA in the cytosol can efficiently promote antitumor immunity by activating the cGAMP synthase (cGAS) / stimulator of interferon genes (STING) cellular signaling pathway. Targeting this cytosolic DNA sensing pathway with interferon stimulatory DNA (ISD) is therefore an attractive immunotherapeutic strategy for the treatment of cancer. However, the therapeutic activity of ISD is limited by several drug delivery barriers, including susceptibility to deoxyribonuclease degradation, poor cellular uptake, and inefficient cytosolic delivery. Here, we describe the development of a nucleic acid immunotherapeutic, NanoISD, which overcomes critical delivery barriers that limit the activity of ISD and thereby promotes antitumor immunity through the pharmacological activation of cGAS at the forefront of the STING pathway. NanoISD is a nanoparticle formulation that has been engineered to confer deoxyribonuclease resistance, enhance cellular uptake, and promote endosomal escape of ISD into the cytosol, resulting in potent activation of the STING pathway via cGAS. NanoISD mediates the local production of proinflammatory cytokines via STING signaling. Accordingly, the intratumoral administration of NanoISD induces the infiltration of natural killer cells and T lymphocytes into murine tumors. The therapeutic efficacy of NanoISD is demonstrated in preclinical tumor models by attenuated tumor growth, prolonged survival, and an improved response to immune checkpoint blockade therapy.

Abstract Background Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) produce durable antitumor responses but provoke autoimmune toxicities, including uncommon but potentially devastating neurologic toxicities. The clinical features, including the spectrum, timing, and outcomes, of ICI-induced neurologic toxicities are not well characterized. Methods We performed disproportionality analysis using Vigibase, the World Health Organization pharmacovigilance database, comparing neurologic adverse event (AE) reporting in patients receiving ICIs vs. the full database. Neurologic AEs were classified by group queries using Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities, between database inception to September 28, 2018. Associations between ICIs and neurologic AEs were assessed using reporting odds ratios (ROR) and information component (IC). IC compares observed and expected values to find associations between drugs and AEs using disproportionate Bayesian reporting; IC025 (lower end of the IC 95% credibility interval) > 0 is considered statistically significant. Results Among the full database, 18,518,994 AEs were reported, including 48,653 with ICIs. ICIs were associated with higher incidence of myasthenia gravis (0.47% of ICI reports vs. 0.04% of the full database, ROR 16.5 [95% CI 14.5–18.9]; IC025 3.31), encephalitis (0.51% vs. 0.05%, ROR 10.4 [95% CI 9.2–11.8]; IC025 3.15), peripheral neuropathy (1.16% vs. 0.67%, IC025 0.68), and meningitis (0.15% vs. 0.06%, ROR 3.1 [95% CI 2.5–3.9]; IC025 1.01). Myasthenia gravis and encephalitis were associated with anti-PD-1 whereas other neurologic AEs were associated with anti-CTLA-4. Myasthenia gravis was characterized by high fatality rates (~ 20%), early onset (median 29 days), and frequent concurrent myocarditis and myositis; whereas other neurologic AEs had lower fatality rates (6–12%), later onset (median 61–80 days), and were non-overlapping. Conclusions ICIs produce a spectrum of distinct classes of neurologic AEs that can cause significant morbidity and mortality and tend to occur early and with class-specific associations.

Era+ breast cancer patients often develop resistance to endocrine therapy. Here, the authors show that FGFR1 amplification is a resistance mechanism to CDK4/6 inhibitor and endocrine therapy and that combined treatment with FGFR, CDK4/6, and anti-estrogens is a potential therapeutic strategy in Era+ breast cancer tumors.

Background Neuroblastoma (NB) is a childhood cancer for which new treatment options are needed. The success of immune checkpoint blockade in the treatment of adult solid tumors has prompted the exploration of immunotherapy in NB; however, clinical evidence indicates that the vast majority of NB patients do not respond to single-agent checkpoint inhibitors. This motivates a need for therapeutic strategies to increase NB tumor immunogenicity. The goal of this study was to evaluate a new immunotherapeutic strategy for NB based on potent activation of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway.Methods To promote STING activation in NB cells and tumors, we utilized STING-activating nanoparticles (STING-NPs) that are designed to mediate efficient cytosolic delivery of the endogenous STING ligand, 2’3’-cGAMP. We investigated tumor-intrinsic responses to STING activation in both MYCN-amplified and non-amplified NB cell lines, evaluating effects on STING signaling, apoptosis, and the induction of immunogenic cell death. The effects of intratumoral administration of STING-NPs on CD8+ T cell infiltration, tumor growth, and response to response to PD-L1 checkpoint blockade were evaluated in syngeneic models of MYCN-amplified and non-amplified NB.Results The efficient cytosolic delivery of 2’3’-cGAMP enabled by STING-NPs triggered tumor-intrinsic STING signaling effects in both MYCN-amplified and non-amplified NB cell lines, resulting in increased expression of interferon-stimulated genes and pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as NB cell death at concentrations 2000-fold to 10000-fold lower than free 2’3’-cGAMP. STING-mediated cell death in NB was associated with release or expression of several danger associated molecular patterns that are hallmarks of immunogenic cell death, which was further validated via cell-based vaccination and tumor challenge studies. Intratumoral administration of STING-NPs enhanced STING activation relative to free 2’3’-cGAMP in NB tumor models, converting poorly immunogenic tumors into tumoricidal and T cell-inflamed microenvironments and resulting in inhibition of tumor growth, increased survival, and induction of immunological memory that protected against tumor re-challenge. In a model of MYCN-amplified NB, STING-NPs generated an abscopal response that inhibited distal tumor growth and improved response to PD-L1 immune checkpoint blockade.Conclusions We have demonstrated that activation of the STING pathway, here enabled by a nanomedicine approach, stimulates immunogenic cell death and remodels the tumor immune microenvironment to inhibit NB tumor growth and improve responses to immune checkpoint blockade, providing a multifaceted immunotherapeutic approach with potential to enhance immunotherapy outcomes in NB.

Type I (IFNα/β) interferon signaling represents a critical transduction pathway involved in recognition and destruction of nascent tumor cells. Downregulation of this pathway to promote a more immunosuppressed microenvironment contributes to the ability of tumor cells to evade the immune system, a known Hallmark of Cancer. The present study investigates the progesterone receptor (PR), which is expressed in the vast majority of breast cancers, and its ability to inhibit efficient interferon signaling in tumor cells. We have shown that PR can block the interferon signaling cascade by promoting ubiquitination and degradation of STAT2. Targeting STAT2 is critical, as we show that it is an essential protein in inducing transcription of interferon-stimulated genes (ISG); shRNA-mediated knockdown of STAT2 severely abrogates the interferon response in vitro. Importantly, we were able to reverse this inhibition by treating with onapristone, an anti-progestin currently being investigated in breast cancer clinical trials. Additionally, we have found that an interferon-related gene signature (composed of ISGs) is inversely correlated with PR expression in human tumors. We speculate that PR inhibition of interferon signaling may contribute to creating an immunosuppressed microenvironment and reversal of this through anti-progestins may present a novel therapeutic target to promote immune activity within the tumor.

Immunotherapy often fails as a single option treatment in cancer. Here, the authors show that targeting of DNA methyltransferases, such as DNMT1, can potentiate anti-tumor immunity and response to checkpoint inhibition by increasing MHC gene expression and the recruitment of CD8+ T cells.

Abstract Background During pregnancy, as the mammary gland prepares for synthesis and delivery of milk to newborns, a luminal mammary epithelial cell (MEC) subpopulation proliferates rapidly in response to systemic hormonal cues that activate STAT5A. While the receptor tyrosine kinase ErbB4 is required for STAT5A activation in MECs during pregnancy, it is unclear how ErbB3, a heterodimeric partner of ErbB4 and activator of phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase (PI3K) signaling, contributes to lactogenic expansion of the mammary gland. Methods We assessed mRNA expression levels by expression microarray of mouse mammary glands harvested throughout pregnancy and lactation. To study the role of ErbB3 in mammary gland lactogenesis, we used transgenic mice expressing WAP-driven Cre recombinase to generate a mouse model in which conditional ErbB3 ablation occurred specifically in alveolar mammary epithelial cells (aMECs). Results Profiling of RNA from mouse MECs isolated throughout pregnancy revealed robust Erbb3 induction during mid-to-late pregnancy, a time point when aMECs proliferate rapidly and undergo differentiation to support milk production. Litters nursed by ErbB3 KO dams weighed significantly less when compared to litters nursed by ErbB3 WT dams. Further analysis revealed substantially reduced epithelial content, decreased aMEC proliferation, and increased aMEC cell death during late pregnancy. Consistent with the potent ability of ErbB3 to activate cell survival through the PI3K/Akt pathway, we found impaired Akt phosphorylation in ErbB3 KO samples, as well as impaired expression of STAT5A, a master regulator of lactogenesis. Constitutively active Akt rescued cell survival in ErbB3-depleted aMECs, but failed to restore STAT5A expression or activity. Interestingly, defects in growth and survival of ErbB3 KO aMECs as well as Akt phosphorylation, STAT5A activity, and expression of milk-encoding genes observed in ErbB3 KO MECs progressively improved between late pregnancy and lactation day 5. We found a compensatory upregulation of ErbB4 activity in ErbB3 KO mammary glands. Enforced ErbB4 expression alleviated the consequences of ErbB3 ablation in aMECs, while combined ablation of both ErbB3 and ErbB4 exaggerated the phenotype. Conclusions These studies demonstrate that ErbB3, like ErbB4, enhances lactogenic expansion and differentiation of the mammary gland during pregnancy, through activation of Akt and STAT5A, two targets crucial for lactation.

MEK inhibition in breast cancer is associated with increased tumour infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), however, MAPK activity is required for T cells function. Here the authors show that TILs activity following MEK inhibition can be enhanced by agonist immunotherapy resulting in synergic therapeutic effects.

Abstract DDIT4 gene encodes a protein whose main action is to inhibit mTOR under stress conditions whilst several in vitro studies indicate that its expression favors cancer progression. We have previously described that DDIT4 expression is an independent prognostic factor for tripe negative breast cancer resistant to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. We herein report that high DDIT4 expression is related to the outcome (recurrence-free survival, time to progression and overall survival) in several cancer types. We performed in silico analysis in online platforms, in pooled datasets from KM Plotter and meta-analysis of individual datasets from SurvExpress. High levels of DDIT4 were significantly associated with a worse prognosis in acute myeloid leukemia, breast cancer, glioblastoma multiforme, colon, skin and lung cancer. Conversely, a high DDIT4 expression was associated with an improved prognostic in gastric cancer. DDIT4 was not associated with the outcome of ovarian cancers. Analysis with data from the Cell Miner Tool in 60 cancer cell lines indicated that although rapamycin activity was correlated with levels of MTOR, it is not influenced by DDIT4 expression. In summary, DDIT4 might serve as a novel prognostic biomarker in several malignancies. DDIT4 activity could be responsible for resistance to mTOR inhibitors and is a potential candidate for the development of targeted therapy.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has changed the landscape of cancer treatment, particularly for high-mutation burden cancers. However, ICI therapy has thus far demonstrated limited efficacy in breast cancers, where tumor mutation rates are intermediate. Nonetheless, because of limited but positive signals in early trials, combinations of therapies to enhance anti-tumor immunity, and thus response to ICIs in breast cancer, are actively being sought. Our laboratory recently found that guadecitabine, a next-generation DNA methyltransferase inhibitor (DMTi), potentiated cytotoxic CD8+ T cell responses in breast cancer, which appeared to occur by the following mechanisms: (1) DMTi treatment hypomethylated and up-regulated both baseline and IFN-γ-induced MHC-I expression, thereby enhancing antigen presentation capacity, (2) DMTi treatment increased Cxcr3 ligands/chemokines (i.e., Cxcl9, Cxcl10, and Cxcl11) expression and recruited cytotoxic CD8+ T cells into the tumors and (3) DMTi treatment activated NFκB signaling, presumably through the expression of endogenous retroviral (ERV) sequences in tumor cells, initiating an innate response observed in other solid tumor types [Luo et al., Nat Commun 9(1):248]. Most importantly, DMTi treatment primed breast cancer and improved responses to anti-PD-L1 therapy.

The progression of cancer requires mutational adaptation to permit unrestrained proliferation. A fraction of cancer mutations are oncogenic drivers, while others are putative ‘passengers’ that do not contribute to oncogenesis. However, altered peptides arising from passenger mutations may bind MHCs and activate non-self immunologic signals (i.e. neoantigens), thus requiring immunoediting for cancer persistence. Disruption of antigen processing machinery in tumor cells may diminish this requirement. Here, we show that rare mutations in antigen processing machinery are associated with high mutational burden and increased predicted neoantigen load, providing insights into the mechanisms of high mutation burden in some patients.

Immunotherapy is used to treat melanoma, however patient responses vary widely highlighting the need for factors that can predict therapeutic success. Here, the authors show that MHC-II molecules expressed by tumour cells are positively correlated with a good response to therapy and overall patient survival.

Immunotherapies targeting programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) or its ligand, programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), dramatically improve the survival of melanoma patients. However, only ∼40% of treated patients demonstrate a clinical response to single-agent anti-PD-1 therapy. An intact tumor response to type-II interferon (i.e. IFN-γ) correlates with response to anti-PD-1, and patients with de novo or acquired resistance may harbor loss-of-function alterations in the JAK/STAT pathway, which lies downstream of the interferon gamma receptor (IFNGR1/2). In this study, we dissected the specific roles of individual JAK/STAT pathway members on the IFN-γ response, and identified JAK1 as the primary mediator of JAK/STAT signaling associated with IFN-γ-induced expression of antigen-presenting molecules MHC-I and MHC-II, as well as PD-L1 and the cytostatic response to IFN-γ. In contrast to the crucial role of JAK1, JAK2 was largely dispensable in mediating most IFN-γ effects. In a mouse melanoma model, inhibition of JAK1/2 in combination with anti-PD-L1 therapy partially blocked anti-tumor immunologic responses, while selective JAK2 inhibition appeared to augment therapy. Amplification of JAK/STAT signaling in tumor cells through genetic inhibition of the negative regulator PTPN2 potentiated IFN-γ response in vitro and in vivo, and may be a target to enhance immunotherapy efficacy.

Platinum-based chemotherapy is usually curative for patients with testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT), but a subset of patients experience disease progression and poor clinical outcomes. Here, we tested whether immune profiling of TGCT could identify novel prognostic markers and therapeutic targets for this patient cohort. We obtained primary and metastatic TGCT samples from one center. We performed immune profiling using multiplexed fluorescence immunohistochemistry (FIHC) for T-cell subsets and immune checkpoints, and targeted gene expression profiling (Nanostring nCounter Immune panel). Publically available data sets were used to validate primary sample analyses. Nearly all samples had some degree of T-cell infiltration and immune checkpoint expression. Seminomas were associated with increased CD3+ T-cell infiltration, decreased Regulatory T-cells, increased PD-L1, and increased PD-1/PD-L1 spatial interaction compared with non-seminomas using FIHC. Gene expression profiling confirmed these findings and also demonstrated increased expression of T-cell markers (e.g., IFNγ, and LAG3) and cancer/testis antigens (e.g., PRAME) in seminomas, whereas non-seminomas demonstrated high neutrophil and macrophage gene signatures. Irrespective of histology, advanced TGCT stage was associated with decreased T-cell and NK-cell signatures, while Treg, neutrophil, mast cell and macrophage signatures increased with advanced stage. Importantly, cancer/testis antigen, neutrophil, and CD8+/regulatory T-cell signatures correlated with recurrence free survival. Thus, deep immune characterization of TGCT using IHC and gene expression profiling identified activated T-cell infiltration which correlated with seminoma histology and good prognosis. These results may provide a rationale for testing of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 agents and suggest prognostic markers.