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Rising per capita consumption, economic growth, and urbanisation, particularly in developing countries, have been driving an increased global demand for food. These changing socio-economic trends, which have greatly influenced changes in dietary patterns globally and, more specifically, have increased consumption of livestock products in developing countries, are expected to endure and to place new pressures on livestock-sector infrastructure and the delivery of veterinary services. This paper summarises current trade in meat and presents plausible projections for the future. It highlights the impact of animal disease on trade and considers the effect of ongoing disease outbreaks, particularly the outbreaks of African swine fever and COVID-19, on current and future trade dynamics. The authors analysed published statistics on the demand for, and international trade in, livestock products at national and regional levels and made projections of the same up to 2050, generated from an integrated model of the global agricultural and food system. The resulting analyses identified patterns of trade consistent with growing populations, increasing incomes and changing diets in developing countries. The analyses also pointed to slow expansion of livestock production, and the impacts of countries' disease status on livestock trade. For most of the livestock products analysed, economic model projections indicate increased consolidation of production and exports among a few countries. Marked increases in the trade in livestock products suggest a changing role for Veterinary Services in facilitating trade and extension in the years to come.La demande mondiale en denrées alimentaires connaît une hausse continue sous l'effet conjugué de la progression de la consommation par habitant, de la croissance économique et de l'urbanisation, en particulier dans les pays en développement. Ces tendances socio-économiques ont modifié les structures des régimes alimentaires dans le monde, plus spécifiquement dans les pays en développement où la consommation de denrées alimentaires d'origine animale s'est accrue, et elles vont très certainement perdurer et exercer de nouvelles pressions sur les infrastructures du secteur de l'élevage comme sur les prestations de services vétérinaires. Les auteurs font une synthèse de l'état actuel des échanges internationaux de viande et présentent quelques projections plausibles concernant l'avenir. Ils soulignent l'impact des maladies animales sur les échanges et examinent les répercussions que les foyers actuels de maladies peuvent avoir sur les dynamiques actuelles et futures des échanges, en citant la peste porcine africaine et l'épidémie de COVID-19 à titre d'illustrations. Les auteurs analysent ensuite les statistiques publiées relatives à la demande en produits issus de l'élevage et aux échanges internationaux de ces produits à l'échelle nationale et régionale, et présentent leurs propres projections de ces tendances jusqu'en 2050, élaborées à partir d'un modèle intégré du système agricole et alimentaire mondial. Les analyses qui en résultent font apparaître que les structures des échanges évolueront parallèlement à la croissance démographique, à l'augmentation des revenus et aux modifications des régimes alimentaires dans les pays en développement. Les analyses relèvent également une croissance lente de l'élevage, ainsi que les conséquences du statut sanitaire des pays sur les échanges commerciaux. Pour la plupart des produits issus de l'élevage pris en compte dans cette analyse, les projections du modèle économique prévoient une concentration accrue de la production et des exportations, dans un nombre limité de pays. Une augmentation marquée des échanges de produits issus de l'élevage devra s'accompagner d'une évolution du rôle des Services vétérinaires afin de faciliter les échanges et de soutenir leur extension dans les années à venir.El aumento del consumo per cápita, el crecimiento económico y los procesos de urbanización, especialmente en los países en desarrollo, han venido induciendo una mayor demanda mundial de alimentos. Estas tendencias socioeconómicas han influido sobremanera en la evolución de los regímenes alimentarios en todo el mundo y, más concretamente, han llevado a un mayor consumo de productos ganaderos en los países en desarrollo. Según apuntan las previsiones, esta evolución se prolongará en el tiempo y ejercerá nuevas presiones sobre la infraestructura del sector pecuario y la prestación de servicios veterinarios. Los autores resumen la situación actual del comercio de productos cárnicos y presentan proyecciones plausibles de lo que puede deparar el futuro. Tras destacar el peso que tienen las enfermedades animales en el comercio, examinan los efectos de brotes infecciosos hoy en curso, en particular de peste porcina africana y COVID-19, sobre la dinámica actual y futura del comercio. Los autores analizaron las estadísticas publicadas sobre la demanda y el comercio internacional de productos procedentes de la ganadería, por países y regiones, tras lo cual hicieron proyecciones del curso de estas tendencias hasta 2050, generadas a partir de un modelo integrado del sistema agrícola y alimentario mundial. Los análisis resultantes depararon una configuración del comercio coherente con poblaciones cada vez más numerosas, un creciente nivel de ingresos y cambios en el régimen alimentario en los países en desarrollo. Los análisis también apuntaban a una lenta expansión de la producción pecuaria y ponían de relieve la influencia de la situación sanitaria de los países en el comercio de ganado. Para la mayoría de los productos ganaderos analizados, las proyecciones de los modelos económicos apuntaban a una mayor concentración en unos pocos países de la actividad de producción y exportación. La marcada intensificación del comercio de productos ganaderos lleva a pensar en una evolución del papel de los Servicios Veterinarios para facilitar el comercio y su extensión en los próximos años.

There is growing evidence to suggest that non-typeable Hemophilus influenzae (NTHi), an important cause of otitis media in children, is able to grow as a biofilm in the middle ear. This observation may help to explain bacterial persistence in chronic infections. We evaluate the usefulness of rapid freezing and freeze substitution as a means of preparing biofilms for ultrastructural examination by comparing the morphology of cryofixed specimens with the morphology produced using more conventional chemical fixation and dehydration methods. Chemical fixation and dehydration methods produced substantial ultrastructural damage to individual NTHi in the biofilm and loss of extracellular matrix, even in the presence of ruthenium red. In comparison, cryofixed and freeze-substituted NTHi biofilms showed significantly improved preservation of bacterial ultrastructure and biofilm organization. The intracellular contents of NTHi prepared using the cryomethods showed little evidence of aggregation, and bacteria within the biofilm were closely packed and surrounded by an abundant extracellular matrix. Although high-pressure freezing of NTHi biofilms followed by freeze substitution was highly effective for preserving ultrastructure when examined by transmission electron microscopy, immersion in liquid propane offered an alternative, “less technical”, freezing method. Immersion in liquid propane followed by freeze substitution and critical point drying was most effective for preserving ultrastructural details in specimens examined by scanning electron microscopy.

In the year 2010, the Kenya government announced that 14-seater vans, commonly referred to as “matatus”, were to be phased out so as to reduce traffic congestion on the roads and also to ensure efficient commuter movement. Travelers on Kenyan roads have not experienced public transport system without 14-seater PSVs. Little is known about the perception of commuters concerning the relative efficiency of 14-seater vehicles in the city of Nairobi over the alternative PSV modes. It is therefore needful to establish whether or not the phasing out of 14-seater PSVs would lead to the realization of the intended objective of decongesting motorized traffic in the city’s roads. The population was low-cadre employees at the headquarters of government ministries in Nairobi and random sampling method was used to select the ministries. Departments in the ministries were also identified through random sampling. Desired data was collected through the administration of a questionnaire. The data was analyzed using χ-test, linear regression model with respect to time and fare charged and analysis of variance. The study established that: travel time from house to workplace; the existence of alternative routes, and; fare charged, influenced choice of 14-seater PSV over the other alternative PSV modes. It is recommended that a comparative policy analysis should be undertaken to come up with a hybrid PSV policy that can serve the Kenyan commuter. Also, the government should not phase out 14-seater PSVs by force but increase taxes and levies on 14-seater PSVs which would by extension make fare high and hence make commuters shy away from the 14-seater PSVs. This refers to the mode of public passenger travel that is liked by a high number of commuters. Employees of the Government of Kenya earning salaries that are less than thirty thousand shillings per month. Refers to a means of public passenger transport vehicle which ferries passengers who randomly board it at the bus stops on the route it operates. The passengers disembark at their various destinations after paying a fee to the conductor. Such vehicles are of different passenger capacities ranging from 7 – 26-seater PSV. This refers to the capacity of vehicle used by commuters. They are in six categories namely; one passenger motorized two-wheelers, 2-3 motorized three-wheelers, 4-7-seater taxis, 8-14 seaters,14-seater, 15-32-seaters and 33-seater and above. This refers to public passenger vehicles which are licensed to carry pay-to-board passengers on Kenya’s roads. They carry a minimum of one passenger. Year: 2014 Volume: 3 Issue: 1