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Studies of the contribution of institutional identity to the formation of psychological structures suggest that such identity imposes restrictions on the formation of new experience. The aim of this work was to describe strategies for solving analytical and holistic problems that are characteristic for individuals with analytical and holistic types of mentality. Participants (N = 105) were solving analytical (a) and holistic (h) word problems (a-problems: “Knights and Knaves” and “Grid-logic”; h-problems: “Anagrams” and “Moral dilemmas”). The results have shown that “normativity” was the principle characteristic of the problem-solving strategy accounting for the observed differences between individuals with analytical and holistic types of mentality.

Recent research strongly supports the idea that cardiac activity is involved in the organization of social behavior and social cognition. The aim of this study was to explore the dynamics of heart rate irregularity, as measured by permutation entropy (PE), while individuals were making moral judgments about actions and omissions leading to serious physical harm to another person. The results have shown that participants (N = 58, 50% women, age 21–52 years old) judged harmful actions as less permissible than equivalently harmful omissions (phenomenon known as the “omission bias”). Importantly, the response times were significantly longer and PE values were higher when participants were evaluating harmful omissions, as compared to harmful actions. These results may be viewed as a psychophysiological manifestation of differences in causal attribution between actions and omissions, viewed by some authors as one of the bases for intuitive moral judgment. We discuss the obtained results from the positions of the system-evolutionary theory, which proposes that any behavior is based on co-operative activity of morphologically different cell groups distributed across the brain and the rest of the body that comprise functional systems. Thus, heart rate irregularity originates in co-operation of cardiovascular and other components of actualized functional systems, and reflects complexity of the dynamics of the organism-environment interactions, including their social aspects.

As shown in our previous paper ('Regression I. Experimental approaches to regression', JAP, 65, 2, 345-65), the common mechanism of regression can be described as reversible dedifferentiation, which is understood as a relative increase of the proportion of low-differentiated (older) systems in actualized experience. Experimental data show that regression following disease (chronic tension headache) is followed by adaptation and an increase in system differentiation in that experience domain which contains systems responsible for that adaptation. The results of mathematical modelling support the idea that reversible dedifferentiation can be one of the mechanisms for increasing the effectiveness of adaptation through learning. Reversible dedifferentiation, which is phenomenologically described as regression, is a general mechanism for restructuring the organism-environment interactions in situations where behaviours that were effective in the past become ineffective. Reversible dedifferentiation has evolved as a component of adaptation when new behaviours are formed and large-scale modifications in the existing behaviours are required in the face of changes in the external and/or internal environment. Thus, the authors believe that this article provides evidence for Jung's view that regression is not only a 'return' to past forms of thinking, affects and behaviour, but that regressive processes provide a significant impetus for psychological growth and development.Comme nous l’avons montré dans notre article précédent (« Régression I. Les approches expérimentales de la régression »), le mécanisme propre à la régression peut être décrit en tant que dé-différentiation réversible, ce que l’on peut comprendre comme une hausse relative de la proportion de systèmes peu différentiés (plus vieux) dans l’expérience actualisée. Les données expérimentales montrent que la régression suite à une maladie (mal de tête de tension chronique) est suivie par une adaptation et un accroissement dans la différentiation des systèmes dans le domaine d’expérience qui contient les systèmes responsables de cette adaptation. Les résultats de la modélisation mathématique soutiennent l’idée que la dé-différentiation réversible peut être l’un des mécanismes pour accroitre l’efficacité de l’adaptation par l’apprentissage. La dé-différentiation réversible, qui est décrite phénoménologiquement comme régression, est un mécanisme général pour restructurer les interactions organisme-environnement dans des situations où les comportements qui fonctionnaient par le passé sont devenus inefficaces. La dé-différentiation réversible a évolué comme un élément de l’adaptation quand de nouveaux comportements se développent et que des changements dans l’environnement extérieur ou intérieur requièrent des modifications à grande échelle dans les comportements existants. Ainsi, les auteurs pensent que cet article apporte un soutien à la perspective de Jung selon laquelle la régression n’est pas seulement un « retour » à des formes anciennes de fonctionnement, d’affects et de comportement, mais que les processus régressifs fournissent un élan significatif pour la croissance et le développement psychologiques.Wie wir in unserem vorangegangenen Artikel gezeigt haben (‘Regression I. Experimentelle Ansätze zur Regression’), kann der gewöhnliche Regressionsmechanismus als reversible Entdifferenzierung beschrieben werden, die als relative Zunahme des Anteils niedrig differenzierter (älterer) Systeme innerhalb aktualisierten Erlebens verstanden wird. Experimentelle Daten zeigen, daß auf die nach einer Krankheit (chronischer Spannungskopfschmerz) auftretende Regression eine Anpassung und eine Zunahme der Systemdifferenzierung in jenem Erfahrungsbereich folgt, der Systeme enthält, die für diese Anpassung verantwortlich sind. Die mit Hilfe eines mathematischen Modells gewonnenen Ergebnisse stützen die Idee, daß reversible Entdifferenzierung einer der Mechanismen zur Steigerung der Wirksamkeit der Anpassung durch Lernen sein kann. Reversible Entdifferenzierung, die phänomenologisch als Regression bezeichnet wird, ist ein allgemeiner Mechanismus zur Restrukturierung der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Organismus und Umwelt in Situationen, in denen Verhaltensweisen, die in der Vergangenheit wirksam waren, unwirksam werden. Reversible Entdifferenzierung hat sich als Bestandteil der Anpassung entwickelt, wenn neue Verhaltensweisen gebildet werden und umfangreiche Änderungen an den vorhandenen Verhaltensweisen angesichts von Änderungen in der externen und/oder internen Umgebung erforderlich sind. Die Autoren gehen daher davon aus, daß dieser Artikel die Ansicht von Jung belegt, daß Regression nicht nur eine 'Rückkehr' zu früheren Formen des Denkens, von Affekten und Verhalten ist, sondern daß regressive Prozesse einen signifikanten Impuls für psychologisches Wachstum und Entwicklung liefern.Come abbiamo mostrato nel nostro precedente articolo ('Regressione I. Approcci sperimentali alla regressione'), il comune meccanismo di regressione può essere descritto come una de-differenziazione reversibile, che è intesa come un aumento dei sistemi poco differenziati (vecchi) nell'esperienza concreta. I dati sperimentali mostrano che la regressione successiva ad un disturbo (come il mal di testa da tensione cronica) è seguita dall'adattamento e da un aumento della differenziazione del sistema in quel settore di esperienza che contiene i sistemi responsabili di tale adattamento. I risultati della modellazione matematica supportano l'idea che la de-differenziazione reversibile possa essere uno dei meccanismi che aumentano l'efficacia dell'adattamento attraverso l'apprendimento. La de-differenziazione reversibile, che è fenomenologicamente descritta come regressione, è un meccanismo generale per la riorganizzazione delle interazioni organismo-ambiente in situazioni in cui comportamenti che erano efficaci in passato diventano inefficaci. La de-differenziazione reversibile si è evoluta in una componente dell’adattamento rispetto a nuovi comportamenti o modifiche su larga scala nei comportamenti esistenti, a fronte di cambiamenti nell'ambiente esterno e/o interno. Pertanto, gli Autori ritengono che questo articolo offra sostegno all’idea di Jung secondo cui la regressione non è solo un “ritorno” a forme passate di pensiero, affetti e comportamento, ma fornisca anche un impulso significativo per la crescita e lo sviluppo psicologico.Как мы показали в нашей предыдущей статье («Регрессия I. Экспериментальные подходы к регрессии»), общий механизм регрессии можно описать как обратимую дедифференциацию, которая понимается как относительное увеличение доли низкодифференцированных (более старых) систем в актуализированном опыте. Экспериментальные данные показывают, что возникающая после заболевания (например, после хронической головной боли напряжения) регрессия сопровождается адаптацией и увеличением системной дифференциации в то м домене опыта, которыйсодержит системы, ответственные за эту адаптацию. Результаты математического моделирования подтверждают идею о том, что обратимая дедифференциация может быть одним из механизмов повышения эффективности адаптации посредством обучения. Обратимая дедифференциация, которая феноменологически описывается как регрессия, является общим механизмом реструктуризации взаимодействий организм-среда в ситуациях, когда поведение, которое было эффективным в прошлом, становится неэффективным. Обратимая дедифференциация развивается как компонент адаптации, когда формируется новое поведение и требуются крупномасштабные изменения в существующем поведении перед лицом изменений во внешней и/или внутренней среде. Таким образом, авторы полагают, что в этой статье подтверждается мнение Юнга о том, что регрессия - это не только «возврат» к прошлым формам мышления, аффектов и поведения, но и то, что регрессивные процессы дают значительный импульс для психологического роста и развития.Como hemos mostrado en nuestros trabajos previos (‘Regresión I. Abordajes experimentales hacia la regresión’), el mecanismo común de la regresión puede ser descripto como desdiferenciación reversible, el cual es comprendido como un relativo incremento en la proporción de sistemas de baja-diferenciación en la experiencia actual. Data experimental muestra que la regresión luego de una enfermedad (tensión de cabeza crónica) es seguida por la adaptación y por un incremento en la diferenciación de sistemas en aquel dominio de la experiencia, que contiene sistemas responsables para tal adaptación. Los resultados del modelo matemático sostienen la idea de que la desdiferenciación reversible puede ser uno de los mecanismos para incrementar la efectividad de la adaptación a través del aprendizaje. La desdiferenciación reversible, la cual fenomenológicamente se describe como regresión, es un mecanismo general para restructurar las interacciones entre el organismo y el medio ambiente, en situaciones en las que las conductas que eran efectivas en el pasado se vuelven ineficaces. La desdiferenciación reversible ha evolucionado como un componente de la adaptación cuando se forman nuevas conductas y se requieren modificaciones a gran escala en las conductas existentes frente a los cambios en el medio ambiente externo y/o interno. Así, los autores consideran que el artículo proporciona evidencia a la perspectiva de Jung sobre la regresión, no solamente como un ‘retorno’ a formas de pensar, sentir y actuar del pasado sino que los procesos regresivos proveen un estímulo significativo para el desarrollo y el crecimiento psicológico.退行II:通过退行得以发展 在第一篇文章中 (退行I:退行的实证取向), 退行的一般机制可以被描述为一种可逆的去分化, 这可以理解为, 低分化的 (旧的)系统在实际经验中所占比例的相对增长。实验数据显示, 与退行相随的疾病 (慢性紧张性头痛)之后, 会发生适应, 以及系统分化的增长, 因为这一经验领域包含了作用于适应的系统。数学建模的研究结果也支持这一观念, 即可逆的去分化是一种通过学习来增进适应效率的机制。可逆的去分化在现象学上被描述为退行, 它是一种普遍的机制, 用以重建有机环境中的互动, 在这些情境中, 以往有效的行为开始失效。当新的行为形成, 个体为了面对内外环境的变化, 对已有行为进行必要的大尺度调整时, 可逆的去分化便进化为适应的一个组成部分。于是, 作者相信这篇文章为荣格的退行观点提供了支持, 即退行不仅仅是“回归”过往的思维方式、情感和行为, 而是说, 退行还为心理成长与发展提供了重要的动力。.

Variability in beat-to-beat heart activity reflects the dynamics of heart-brain interactions. From the positions of the system evolutionary theory, any behaviour is based on simultaneous actualization of functional systems formed at different stages of phylo- and ontogenesis. Each functional system is comprised by neurons and other body cells, the activity of which contributes to achieving an adaptive outcome for the whole organism. In this study we hypothesized that the dynamics of spectral parameters of heart rate variability (HRV) can be used as an indicator of the system mismatch observed when functional systems with contradictory characteristics are actualized simultaneously. We presented 4–11-year-old children (N = 34) with a set of moral dilemmas describing situations where an in-group member achieved optional benefits by acting unfairly and endangering lives of out-group members. The results showed that LF/HF ratio of HRV was higher in children with developed moral attitudes for fairness toward out-groups as compared to children who showed preference for in-group members despite the unfair outcome for the out-group. Thus, the system mismatch in situations with a moral conflict is shown to be reflected in the dynamics of heart activity.

The concept of regression is considered with an emphasis on the differences between the positions of Freud and Jung regarding its significance. The paper discusses the results of experimental analyses of individual experience dynamics (from gene expression changes and impulse neuronal activity in animals to prosocial behaviour in healthy humans at different ages, and humans in chronic pain) in those situations where regression occurs: stress, disease, learning, highly emotional states and alcohol intoxication. Common mechanisms of regression in all these situations are proposed. The mechanisms of regression can be described as reversible dedifferentiation, which is understood as a relative increase of the representation of low-differentiated (older) systems in the actualized experience. In all of the cases of dedifferentiation mentioned above, the complexity of the systemic organization of behaviour significantly decreases.Le concept de régression est étudié en mettant l’accent sur les différences entre les positions de Freud et celles de Jung concernant sa portée. L’article discute les résultats des analyses expérimentales de dynamiques de l’expérience individuelle (de changements dans l’expression des gènes et de l’activité des réflexes neuronaux chez les animaux aux comportements pro-sociaux chez des humains en bonne santé et à des âges de vie divers, et chez des humains en situation de souffrance chronique) dans ces situations où se produit la régression: le stress, la maladie, l’apprentissage, les états hautement émotionnels et l’intoxication par l’alcool. Les mécanismes communs de régression dans toutes ces situations sont présentés. Les mécanismes de régression peuvent être décrits en tant que dé-différentiation réversible, ce qui est interprété comme un accroissement relatif de la représentation de systèmes peu-différenciés (plus vieux) dans l’expérience actualisée. Dans tous les cas de dé-différentiation mentionnés plus haut, la complexité de l’organisation systémique du comportement décroit de manière significative.Das Konzept der Regression wird unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Unterschiede zwischen den Positionen von Freud und Jung auf seine Tragweite hin untersucht. Der Aufsatz diskutiert die Ergebnisse experimenteller Analysen der individuellen Erlebensdynamik (von Veränderungen der Genexpression und der impulsiven neuronalen Aktivität bei Tieren bis hin zu prosozialem Verhalten bei gesunden Menschen unterschiedlichen Alters und Menschen mit chronischen Schmerzen) in Situationen, in denen Regressionen auftreten: Streß, Krankheit, Lernen, sehr emotionale Zustände und Alkoholvergiftung. In all diesen Situationen werden gemeinsame Regressionsmechanismen angenommen. Diese Regressionsmechanismen können als reversible Entdifferenzierungen beschrieben werden, die als relativer Anstieg der Repräsentation niedrig differenzierter (älterer) Systeme in der aktualisierten Erfahrung verstanden wird. In allen oben genannten Fällen der Entdifferenzierung nimmt die Komplexität der systemischen Organisation des Verhaltens signifikant ab.Il concetto di regressione viene considerato con un’enfasi sulle differenze tra le posizioni di Freud e Jung riguardo al suo significato. L’articolo discute i risultati di analisi sperimentali delle dinamiche dell’esperienza individuale (dalle modificazioni nell’espressione genetica e dall’impulso dell'attività neuronale negli animali fino al comportamento prosociale in esseri umani sani in età differenti, e in esseri umani con dolore cronico) in quelle situazioni in cui si verifica la regressione: stress, malattia, apprendimento, stati altamente emotivi e intossicazione alcolica. Vengono proposti meccanismi comuni di regressione in tutte queste situazioni. I meccanismi di regressione possono essere descritti come dedifferenziazione reversibile, che è intesa come un aumento relativo della rappresentazione di sistemi a bassa differenziazione (più vecchi) nell’esperienza attualizzata. In tutti i casi di dedifferenziazione sopra menzionati, la complessità dell’organizzazione sistemica del comportamento diminuisce significativamente.Понятие регрессии рассматривается в свете различий взглядов Фрейда и Юнга на значение регрессии. В статье обсуждаются результаты экспериментального анализа динамики индивидуального опыта (начиная от изменений генной экспрессии и спайковой активности нейронов у животных до просоциального поведения у здоровых людей в разные возрастные периоды и людей, испытывающих хроническую боль) в ситуациях, в которых происходит регрессия: стресс, болезнь, обучение, состояния сильного эмоционального возбуждения, алкогольная интоксикация. Обосновывается представление об общности механизмов регрессии во всех этих ситуациях. Механизмы регрессии могут быть описаны как обратимая дедифференциация, под которой понимается относительное увеличение представленности низко-дифференцированных (старых) систем в актуализированном опыте. Во всех случаях упомянутой выше дедифференциации, сложность системной организации поведения существенно снижается.Se considera el concepto de regresión, con énfasis en las diferencias entre Freud y Jung en lo que concierne a su significado. El trabajo desarrolla los resultados de análisis experimentales sobre dinámicas experienciales individuales (desde cambios en la expresión genética y actividad neuronal en animales a conductas prosociales en humanos saludables en diferentes edades, y humanos en dolor crónico) en aquellas situaciones donde la regresión ocurre: estrés, enfermedad, aprendizaje, estados altamente emocionales e intoxicación alcohólica. Se proponen mecanismos comunes de regresión en todas estas situaciones. Los mecanismos de regresión pueden describirse como de-diferenciación reversible, la cual es comprendida como un incremento relativo de la representación de sistemas de baja-diferenciación (antiguos) en la experiencia actualizada. En todos los casos de de-diferenciación mencionados anteriormente, la complejidad de la organización sistemática de conducta decrece significativamente.退行I:退行的实证取向 退行的概念被认为凸显了弗洛伊德和荣格关于退行的重要性的不同理解。文章讨论了关于个体处于退行发生的情境时, 其经验动力的实证分析的结果 (这些分析涉及动物基因表达的改变和神经元脉冲活性, 以及不同年龄健康人类亲社会的行为, 和慢性疼痛的病人), 这些导致退行的情境包括:压力, 疾病, 学习, 高情绪化状态, 酒精中毒。这些情境下常见的退行机制都在文中提及。退行的机制可以被描述为可逆的去分化, 这可以被理解为在实现经验中, 低分化的 (老一些的)系统表现出的相对增长。在所有以上提及的去分化案例中, 系统化组织的行为的复杂性显著降低了。.

Morality and religion represent an important part of human social behaviour. This work is focused on studying whether and how characteristics of moral judgments may differ in individuals who believe or do not believe in god, and what role religious experience and religiosity level may play in the formation of moral judgments. We analysed responses of 266 participants of an internet-based study, who categorised themselves either as Orthodox Christians (n=130), or nonbelievers (n=136). The participants were asked to assess moral permissibility of harmful prosocial actions in a set of moral scenarios. It has been shown that in general individuals, both believers and nonbelievers deliver comparable moral judgments. However, the orthodox participants judged less permissible to sacrifice one person to save more people’s lives, i.e. their judgments were less utilitarian. Religiosity level did not correlate with any of the characteristics of moral judgments. The results are discussed in relation to evolutionary functions of morality and religion as well as the role of religion in the formation of individual experience in the sociocultural environment

Walter Freeman's work emphasises the role of individual activity and intentionality as opposed to the traditional stimulus-reaction view and the machine metaphor. The results of our computer modeling studies suggest the nonlinear dynamics of experience emerging from perception-action cycles. We consider the perception-action cycle as a behavioral continuum of anticipated outcomes of actions. Neuroscientific research shows that each behavioral act is based on the activity of behaviorally specialized neurons distributed across the brain. Active learning during individual development leads to an increasing differentiation of the structure of individual experience through the formation of such groups of behaviorally specialized neurons. We consider the differentiation of individual experience as a nonlinear process which is implemented at different levels, and argue that consciousness and emotion can be described as dynamic characteristics prominent at the most and least differentiated systemic levels, correspondingly.

Individuals often deliver rapid, automatic judgments of right and wrong, suggesting that there is an implicit system of knowledge that may guide our moral judgments. Some authors have argued that the principles guiding this system are universal, part of our human endowment. Tests of this hypothesis require rich cross-cultural evidence which is presently limited. Here we extend the current cross-cultural evidence by testing Russian subjects. We focus on three psychological distinctions concerning the nature of permissible harm that, thus far, show a fair degree of uniformity among several English-speaking countries (USA, UK, Canada): (1) action-based harms are worse than omission-based harms; (2) means-based harms are worse than side-effects; and (3) contact-based harms are worse than non-contact-based harms. Overall, Russian subjects’ judgments were mediated by these three distinctions. There were, however, some notable cross-cultural differences: in contrast with the English-speaking countries, Russian subjects tended to avoid extreme judgments favoring the middle of the scale anchored at permissible; however, when they used the extremes, they were more likely to judge cases as forbidden, and rarely as obligatory. We discuss these results in light of the role of biological constraints on cross-cultural variation.

Gender, age, and culturally specific beliefs are often considered relevant to observed variation in social interactions. At present, however, the scientific literature is mixed with respect to the significance of these factors in guiding moral judgments. In this study, we explore the role of each of these factors in moral judgment by presenting the results of a web-based study of Eastern (i.e., Russia) and Western (i.e., USA, UK, Canada) subjects, male and female, and young and old. Participants (n = 659) responded to hypothetical moral scenarios describing situations where sacrificing one life resulted in saving five others. Though men and women from both types of cultures judged (1) harms caused by action as less permissible than harms caused by omission, (2) means-based harms as less permissible than side-effects, and (3) harms caused by contact as less permissible than by non-contact, men in both cultures delivered more utilitarian judgments (save the five, sacrifice one) than women. Moreover, men from Western cultures were more utilitarian than Russian men, with no differences observed for women. In both cultures, older participants delivered less utilitarian judgments than younger participants. These results suggest that certain core principles may mediate moral judgments across different societies, implying some degree of universality, while also allowing a limited range of variation due to sociocultural factors.