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Island populations may have a higher extinction risk due to reduced genetic diversity and need to be managed effectively in order to reduce the risk of biodiversity loss. The Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in the south of England only survive on three islands (the Isle of Wight, Brownsea and Furzey islands), with the Isle of Wight harbouring the largest population in the region. Fourteen microsatellites were used to determine the genetic structure of red squirrel populations on the Isle of Wight, as well as their relatedness to other populations of the species. Our results demonstrated that squirrels on these islands were less genetically diverse than those in Continental mainland populations, as would be expected. It also confirmed previous results from mitochondrial DNA which indicated that the squirrels on the Isle of Wight were relatively closely related to Brownsea island squirrels in the south of England. Importantly, our findings showed that genetic mixing between squirrels in the east and west of the Isle of Wight was very limited. Given the potential deleterious effects of small population size on genetic health, landscape management to encourage dispersal of squirrels between these populations should be a priority.

Concern is growing about ecosystem collapse, namely the abrupt decline or loss of an ecosystem resulting from human activities. While efforts to assess the risk of ecosystem collapse have developed at large spatial scales, less attention has been given to the local scales at which conservation management decisions are typically made. Development of appropriate management responses to ecosystem collapse has been limited by uncertainty regarding how collapse may best be identified, together with its underlying causes. Here we operationalise ecosystem collapse for conservation practice by providing a robust definition of collapse, in a form that is relevant to the scale of conservation decision-making. We provide an overview of different causes of collapse, and then explore the implications of this understanding for conservation practice, by examining potential management responses. This is achieved through development of a decision tree, which we illustrate through a series of case studies. We also explore the role of indicators for the early detection of collapse and for monitoring the effectiveness of management responses. Ecosystem collapse represents a significant challenge to conservation practice, as abrupt changes in ecosystem structure, function and composition can occur with little warning, leading to profound impacts on both biodiversity and human society. The risks of ecosystem collapse are likely to increase in future, as multiple forms of environmental change continue to intensify. We suggest that selection of management responses should be based on an understanding of the causal mechanisms responsible for collapse, which can be identified through appropriate monitoring and research activities.

The Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is an emblematic species for conservation, and its decline in the British Isles exemplifies the impact that alien introductions can have on native ecosystems. Indeed, red squirrels in this region have declined dramatically over the last 60 years due to the spread of squirrelpox virus following the introduction of the gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Currently, red squirrel populations in Britain are fragmented and need to be closely monitored in order to assess their viability and the effectiveness of conservation efforts. The situation is even more dramatic in the South of England, where S. vulgaris survives only on islands (Brownsea Island, Furzey Island, and the Isle of Wight). Using the D‐loop, we investigated the genetic diversity and putative ancestry of the squirrels from Southern England and compared them to a European dataset composed of 1,016 samples from 54 populations. We found that our three populations were more closely related to other squirrels from the British Isles than squirrels from Europe, showed low genetic diversity, and also harbored several private haplotypes. Our study demonstrates how genetically unique the Southern English populations are in comparison with squirrels from the continental European range. We report the presence of four private haplotypes, suggesting that these populations may potentially harbor distinct genetic lineages. Our results emphasize the importance of preserving these isolated red squirrel populations for the conservation of the species.

Biodiversity conservation approaches are increasingly being implemented at the landscape-scale to support the maintenance\ud of metapopulations and metacommunities. However, the impact of such interventions on the provision of ecosystem services\ud is less well defined. Here we examine the potential impacts of landscape-scale conservation initiatives on ecosystem\ud services, through analysis of five case study areas in England and Wales. The provision of multiple ecosystem services was\ud projected according to current management plans and compared with a baseline scenario. Multicriteria analysis indicated\ud that in most cases landscape-scale approaches lead to an overall increase in service provision. Consistent increases were\ud projected in carbon storage, recreation and aesthetic value, as well as biodiversity value. However, most study areas\ud provided evidence of trade-offs, particularly between provisioning services and other types of service. Results differed\ud markedly between study areas, highlighting the importance of local context. These results suggest that landscape-scale\ud conservation approaches are likely to be effective in increasing ecosystem service provision, but also indicate that associated\ud costs can be significant, particularly in lowland areas.

1.The development of ecological networks could enhance the ability of species to disperse across fragmented landscapes and could mitigate against the negative impacts of climate change. The development of such networks will require widespread ecological restoration at the landscape scale, which is likely to be costly. However, little information is available regarding the cost-effectiveness of restoration approaches. 2.We address this knowledge gap by examining the potential impact of landscape-scale habitat restoration on the value of multiple ecosystem services across the catchment of the River Frome in Dorset, England. This was achieved by mapping the market value of four ecosystem services (carbon storage, crops, livestock and timber) under three different restoration scenarios, estimating restoration costs, and calculating net benefits. 3.The non-market value of additional services (cultural, aesthetic and recreational value) was elicited from local stakeholders using an online survey tool. Flood risk was assessed using a scoring approach. Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) was conducted, incorporating both market and non-market values, to evaluate the relative benefits of restoration scenarios. These were compared with impacts of restoration on biodiversity value. 4.Multi-Criteria Analysis results consistently ranked restoration scenarios above a non-restoration comparator, reflecting the increased provision of multiple ecosystem services. Restoration scenarios also provided benefits to biodiversity, in terms of increased species richness and habitat connectivity. However, restoration costs consistently exceeded the market value of ecosystem services. 5.Synthesis and applications. Establishment of ecological networks through ecological restoration is unlikely to deliver net economic benefits in landscapes dominated by agricultural land use. This reflects the high costs of ecological restoration in such landscapes. The cost-effectiveness of ecological networks will depend on how the benefits provided to people are valued, and on how the value of non-market benefits are weighted against the costs of reduced agricultural and timber production. Future plans for ecological restoration should incorporate local stakeholder values, to ensure that benefits to people are maximised. © 2012 The Authors. Journal of Applied Ecology © 2012 British Ecological Society.

Sustainable use of wildlife is crucial to ensuring persistence of natural resources. We used age-specific survival and breeding data to parameterize a demographic model for a harvested Kazakh saker falcon (Falco cherrug) population by radiotagging juveniles and estimating adult turnover with DNA-fingerprinting during 1993–1997. We gathered similar data during 1990–1998 to model populations of British buzzards (Buteo buteo), and during 1980–1998 to model populations of Swedish goshawks (Accipiter gentilis). Leg-bands and implanted microtransponders provided ways to test for bias and to estimate the harvest of sakers for falconry. Despite an estimated minimum first-year survival of only 23%, the observed productivity of 3.14 young per clutch would sustain a saker population (i.e., λ = 1) with a breeding rate (at laying) of only 0.63 for adults or with a residual juvenile yield of 37% if all adults breed. Higher first-year survival rates for goshawks and buzzards correlated with juvenile yields of up to 71%, but no more than half as many individuals if adults also were harvested. An annual population decline of 40% for sakers in southern Kazakhstan could be explained by observed productivity of only 0.71 young per clutch if there was also an estimated harvest of 55% of adults. This study shows that demographic models such as these can now be built rapidly if nestlings are fitted with reliable and safe radiotags and adult turnover is estimated from genetic analyses or other techniques.

In animal pairs, males are often more vigilant than females. This is generally assumed to result from mate guarding (either against predators or other males). However, when males have conspicuous secondary sexual characteristics, they could be constrained to be more vigilant because of a higher predation risk than females. We attempted to distinguish between the ‘‘male constraint hypothesis’’ and two variations of the mate-guarding hypothesis by studying the vigilance behavior of the sexually dimorphic wigeon during early winter, when some males are in breeding plumage and some are not and when not all males are paired. The proportion of time spent vigilant by paired males in breeding plumage was five times higher than any other category of males or females. We found no significant differences between the vigilance levels of unpaired male wigeon in cryptic and in breeding plumage and therefore rejected the male constraint hypothesis. As vigilance levels of paired and unpaired females did not differ either, we rejected the hypothesis that paired males invest in vigilance to reduce their mate’s need to be vigilant to predation risks. Paired females interacted less frequently with other wigeon than unpaired ones, and it is probably to protect their female from other males that paired male wigeon increase their vigilance times. Key words: Anas penelope, Eurasian wigeon, mate guarding, predation risk, sexual differences, vigilance. [Behav Ecol 14:724–729 (2003)]

Summary 1 Information on the effects of wildlife predation on game and livestock is required to allow improved management of all organisms involved. Monitoring of prey, predators and predation mechanisms each suggests important methods, illustrated here by data from common buzzards Buteo buteo and ring-necked pheasants Phasianus colchicus. 2 Location data from 136 radio-tagged common buzzards, together with prey remains from 40 nest areas, records from 10 gamekeepers and vegetation surveys, were used to investigate raptor predation at 28 pens from which pheasants were released in southern England. 3 Among 20 725 juvenile pheasants released in 1994–95, gamekeepers attributed 4·3% of deaths to buzzards, 0·7% to owls, 0·6% to sparrowhawks, 3·2% to foxes and 0·5% to other mammals. 4 Fresh pheasant remains were found on 7% of 91 visits to buzzard nests, and 8% of radio-tagged buzzards had significantly more association than other buzzards with pheasant pens. 5 Predation by buzzards was most likely to be recorded at release pens with little shrub cover, deciduous canopies and a large number of released pheasants. The number of pheasants killed was greatest in large pens with extensive ground cover, and the highest proportion of released pheasants was killed in large pens where few were released. However, only 21% of 55 releases had > 2 pheasant kills per week. 6 Radio-tagged buzzards were located most often at pheasant-release pens with open, deciduous canopies. Pens were most likely to be visited by buzzards that had fledged nearby, but the proximity of buzzard nests had little influence on how much predation occurred. 7 Only a minority of buzzards associated frequently with pheasant pens, and predation was heavy at only a minority of sites, where pen characteristics and release factors probably made it easy for individual buzzards to kill pheasants. We suggest that the occasional heavy losses could be avoided by encouraging shrubs rather than ground cover in pens, by siting pens where there are few perches for buzzards, and perhaps also by high-density releases.

Methods used to estimate home ranges from point locations are based either on densities of locations or on link distances between locations. The density-based methods estimate ellipses and contours. The other class minimizes sums of link distances, along edges of polygons or to range centers or between locations. We propose a new linkage method, using nearest-neighbor distances first to exclude outlying locations and then to define a multinuclear outlier-exclusive range core (OEC) by cluster analysis. The assumption behind exclusion of outliers, that movements inside and outside range cores involve different activities, was supported by data from radio-tagged Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo). We compared the new method with other techniques by using location data from each of 28 goshawks, 114 buzzards, 138 gray squirrels, and 14 red squirrels. Range structure statistics from OECs showed marked differences between species in numbers and extent of core nuclei. Range analysis displays illustrated relationships of range area with age categories, food supply, population density, and body mass within species. The OECs gave highly significant results in three of five within-species tests, perhaps because animal movements in these cases were affected by coarse-grained habitat boundaries. When movements were likely to have been influenced by diffuse social interactions and foraging for scattered prey, the most significant results were from density-based estimators, especially kernel contours that had been optimized by least-squares cross validation. We recommend use of both density and linkage estimators of home range until a basis for a priori choices has been established.

The demography of red and grey squirrels was studied by live-trapping and radio-tagging at 14 deciduous and conifer sites in southern Britain and at eight conifer sites for one year in northern England. Densities and productivity correlated with tree seed crops for both squirrel species in deciduous and conifer habitats. Productivity was reduced by high density of full-grown squirrels relative to seed abundance. In oak-hazel woods, demography of grey squirrels correlated with abundance of acorns but not of hazel-nuts, whereas density and productivity of red squirrels correlated with hazel-nut abundance. Correlations of female density and productivity with pine-cone crops did not differ between red and grey squirrels. Predators ate many radio-tagged grey squirrels in conifers, and annual survival was only 50% compared with 80-82% for both species in other habitats. Grey squirrel populations in southern conifer sites were sustained by immigration, and at northern sites female density correlated with oak abundance within 500m. Failure to exploit acorn crops puts red squirrels at a competitive disadvantage in deciduous woodland. Red squirrels had higher survival than grey squirrels in conifers, which may give them an advantage in that habitat, but could also have been explained by a lack of predators on their island study site.

A map for valuing ecosystem services in the 480 km2 Frome catchment, to investigate scenarios of change in land use, was internet crowd-sourced. Scouts mapped deer habitats in 15% of the 30 km2 Arne Parish, while 143 residents volunteered data on deer sightings in the 5-year community survey.

This enquiry characterises the use of information on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the environmental decision making process at the local (as opposed to national) level. Data were collected from nine case study areas, in eight countries, to explore local requirements across a range of governance systems and bioregions in EU and accession states. A strong demand for information was noted across all the case studies, with some variation in needs between societal groups. This contrasted with a substantial proportion reporting considerable difficulty in acquiring the necessary information for decision making. This was particularly true for detailed habitat data. Although the internet was commonly used to search for information, much of the data accessed was not stored on computers and not regularly updated or spatially referenced. Notably, the highest perception of these impediments to data access occurred in the stakeholder groups that also indicated the greatest requirements for information.

This chapter draws on results from previous chapters, in some cases creating new syntheses by combining information across chapters and including findings of previous projects. Its specific objective is to consolidate all these findings in the design of a system to support transaction of information for environmental assessments and decision support at central and local levels, by local managers of land and species as well as by policymakers. It recognises the need not merely to provide a technological tool, but also to consider demand and supply for information in that tool, the ease of use of the tool, motivation to use the tool and cost of maintaining the tool long-term: a tool that is not desirable, practical, and durable will not last. The chapter therefore first addresses who makes the most decisions, finding not only that local managers of land and species have high need of support, but also that their demand is least met by model-based decision support despite their high capacity to generate data. For this reason a system was designed primarily to accommodate needs of knowledge transfer at local level. Consideration of data quality, ownership, and confidentiality was important, together with scale, uncertainty (and resulting liability) of resulting decision support. All these considerations can be addressed by developing trust in operation of such a system, for which a basis in the civic sector (rather than in private business or government) was recommended. A portal was launched to continue informing all interests of the scope for building and opportunities from use of such a system.

During pilot surveys at local level, individual stakeholders and officials in local government were asked to list the main environmental issues for which they needed to make decisions, and then to select sources of information they used in each case. Overall, habitats were in the most important information topic for decisions, followed by socio-economics, species, and hazards. However, models of information flows showed great variation in the priorities and the main sources across the stakeholder categories and tiers of local government.

Radio-tagging is widely used for studies of movements, resource use and demography of land vertebrates, with potential to combine such data for predictive modelling of populations from individuals. Such modelling requires standard measures of individual space use, for combination with data on resources, survival, dispersal and breeding. This paper describes how protocols for efficient collection of space-use data can be developed during a pilot study, and reviews the ways in which such data can be used for space-use indices that help answer biological questions, with examples from a study of riverine pike (Esox lucius). Analyses of diurnal activity and spatio-temporal correlation were used to assess when to record locations, and analyses of home range increments were used to define the number of location records necessary to assess seasonal ranges. We stress the importance of developing protocols that use minimal numbers of locations from each individual, so that analyses can be based on samples of many individuals. The efficacy of link-distance (e.g. cluster analysis) and location density (e.g. contouring) techniques for spatial analysis for river fish were compared, and the utility of clipping off areas to river banks was assessed. In addition, a new automated analysis was used to estimate distances along river mid-lines. These techniques made it possible to quantify interactions between individuals and their habitat: including a significant increase in core range size during floods, significant preference for deep pools, and a lack of exclusive territories.

A radio tag is described which facilitates the long-term monitoring of activity events in fish. The tag is a simple peritoneal implant and thus requires no complicated surgery to deploy. A motion-sensing mercury switch interfaced to a microcontroller is used to modulate pulse rate and thus indicate periods of activity. The tag is being used to study the feeding and activity patterns of pike (Esox lucius L.) where laboratory and field trials have shown the system to be robust, long lasting and reliable.

In order to test whether Common Buzzards Buteo buteo that dispersed early were entrepreneurs or exiles, we determined standardised autumn ranges by radio-tracking 67 juveniles during 1990-94. Of these, 11 had dispersed more than 2 km from their natal nest, and had therefore left the natal territory. Buzzards that dispersed early had more fragmented ranges than those that delayed dispersal until the following spring; otherwise no range characteristic differed between the two groups. When only the dispersers were considered, increase in distance from the natal nest was associated with a decrease in range size (r = 0.74) and an increase in the proportion of arable land within the range (r = 0.77). Further investigation revealed that range size was affected by distance from the nest but not by arable habitat. The smaller range size of distant dispersers, combined with evidence of increased productivity among them, suggests that they were more likely to have been entrepreneurs than exiles.