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Even though each adolescent is unique, some ingredients for development may still be universal. According to Self-Determination Theory, every adolescent’s well-being should benefit when parents provide warmth and autonomy. To rigorously test this idea that each family has similar mechanisms, we followed 159 Dutch parent-adolescent dyads (parent: Mage = 45.34, 79% mothers; adolescent: Mage = 13.31, 62% female) for more than three months, and collected 100 consecutive daily reports of parental warmth, autonomy support, positive and negative affect. Positive effects of parental warmth and autonomy support upon well-being were found in 91–98% of the families. Preregistered analysis of 14,546 daily reports confirmed that effects of parenting differed in strength (i.e., some adolescents benefited more than others), but were universal in their direction (i.e., in fewer than 1% of families effects were in an unexpected direction). Albeit stronger with child-reported parenting, similar patterns were found with parent-reports. Adolescents who benefited most from need-supportive parenting in daily life were characterized by higher overall sensitivity to environmental influences. Whereas recent work suggests that each child and each family have unique developmental mechanisms, this study suggests that need-supportive parenting promotes adolescent well-being in most families.

Adolescence is often a period of onset for internalizing and externalizing problems. At the same time, adolescent maturation and increasing autonomy from parents push for changes in family functioning. Even though theoretically expected links among the changes in family functioning and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems exist, studies examining this link on the within-family level are lacking. This longitudinal, pre-registered, and open-science study, examined the within-family dynamic longitudinal associations among family functioning, and internalizing and externalizing problems. Greek adolescents (N = 480, Mage = 15.73, 47.9% girls, at Wave 1) completed self-report questionnaires, three times in 12 months. Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models (RI-CLPM) were applied; such models explicitly disentangle between-family differences from within-family processes, thereby offering a more stringent examination of within-family hypotheses. Results showed that family functioning was not significantly associated with internalizing or externalizing problems, on the within-family level. Also, alternative standard Cross-Lagged Panel Models (CLPM) were applied; such models have been recently criticized for failing to explicitly disentangle between-family variance from within-family variance, but they have been the standard approach to investigating questions of temporal ordering. Results from these analyses offered evidence that adolescents with higher internalizing and externalizing problems compared to their peers, tended to be those who later experienced worse family functioning, but not vice versa. Implications for theory and practice are discussed. © 2019, The Author(s).

We examined whether the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1980Davis, M. H. 1980. A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10: 85 [Google Scholar] ), consisting of Perspective Taking (PT), Empathic Concern (EC), Personal Distress (PD), and Fantasy (FN), is a psychometrically invariant empathy measure for early and late adolescents and their mothers. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated adequate properties and psychometric invariance across 2 Dutch samples (269 early adolescents, 232 late adolescents). Females scored higher than males on each subscale. Early adolescents scored lower than late adolescents on PT and FN, and higher on PD. The different groups showed similar subscale associations with psychosocial health indexes, and similar subscale contributions to a higher order empathy dimension. Most dimensions showed positive correlations between adolescents and mothers. The IRI appears adequate for examining empathy across the span of adolescence, as well as patterns between youths and mothers.

Background It is well documented that friends' externalizing problems and negative parent-child interactions predict externalizing problems in adolescence, but relatively little is known about the role of siblings. This four-wave, multi-informant study investigated linkages of siblings' externalizing problems and sibling-adolescent negative interactions on adolescents' externalizing problems, while examining and controlling for similar linkages with friends and parents. Methods Questionnaire data on externalizing problems and negative interactions were annually collected from 497 Dutch adolescents (M = 13.03 years, SD = 0.52, at baseline), as well as their siblings, mothers, fathers, and friends. Results Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed modest unique longitudinal paths from sibling externalizing problems to adolescent externalizing problems, for male and female adolescents, and for same-sex and mixed-sex sibling dyads, but only from older to younger siblings. Moreover, these paths were above and beyond significant paths from mother-adolescent negative interaction and friend externalizing problems to adolescent externalizing problems, 1 year later. No cross-lagged paths existed between sibling-adolescent negative interaction and adolescent externalizing problems. Conclusions Taken together, it appears that especially older sibling externalizing problems may be a unique social risk factor for adolescent externalizing problems, equal in strength to significant parents' and friends' risk factors. © 2013 The Authors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry © 2013 Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.

Aim: The only validated tool for pharmacotherapy education for medical students is the 6-step method of the World Health Organization. It has proven effective in experimental studies with short term interventions. The generalizability of this effect after implementation in a contextual-rich medical curriculum was investigated. Methods: The pharmacology knowledge and pharmacotherapy skills of cohorts of students, from years before, during and after implementation of a WHO-6-step-based integrated learning programme were tested using a standardized assessment containing 50 items covering knowledge of basic (n = 25) and clinical (n = 24) pharmacology, and pharmacotherapy skills (n = 1 open question). All scores are expressed as a percentage of the maximum score possible per (sub)domain. Results: In total, 1652 students were included between September 2010 and July 2014 (participation rate 89%). The WHO-6-step-based learning programme improved students' knowledge of basic pharmacology (mean score ± SD, 60.6 ± 10.5% vs. 63.4 ± 10.9%, P

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VU University Medical Center, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Curium, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands Departments of Criminology, Psychiatry, and Psychology, Jerry Lee Center of Criminology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA Utrecht University, Research Center Adolescent Development, Utrecht, The Netherlands VU University, Department of Developmental Psychology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Tilburg University, Tilburg School of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Tilburg, The Netherlands

We examined the potential moderating role of Block's personality types (i.e., overcontrollers, undercontrollers, and resilients) on the longitudinal associations between adolescents’ and their best friends’ delinquency. Across three annual waves, 497 Dutch adolescents (283 boys, MAge = 13 years at Wave 1) and their best friends reported on their delinquent behaviors. Adolescents’ three personality types were obtained by latent class growth analysis on their annual reports on Big Five personality. A three‐group cross‐lagged panel analysis was performed on three waves of data. Delinquency of overcontrollers was predicted by their best friends’ delinquency, whereas delinquency of undercontrollers and resilients was not. Delinquency of undercontrollers and resilients predicted their best friends’ delinquency, but overcontrollers’ delinquency did not. These findings suggest that personality may play an important role in adolescents’ susceptibility to the influence of friends’ delinquency, as well as in youths’ ability to influence friends through their own delinquency.

This 3-year, multi-informant study examined whether youths’ perceptions of parental privacy invasion predicted lower parental knowledge over time, as a function of increased adolescent secrecy. Participants were 497 Dutch adolescents (Time 1 M = 13 years, SD = 0.5; 57% boys) and both parents. Higher youth-reported invasion predicted lower father- and mother-reported knowledge 1 year later. A link between privacy invasion and youths’ increased secrecy mediated the association between privacy invasion and mothers’ lower knowledge. Further, mothers’ perceptions of adolescent secrecy mediated the association between adolescent-reported secrecy and mothers’ knowledge. No mediation existed for father-report models. The results suggest that privacy invasion is counterproductive to parents’ efforts to remain knowledgeable about youths, due to increased adolescent secrecy. We discuss the implications for family communication processes and successful privacy negotiations during adolescence.

Background: This study tested the theoretical assumption that transformations of parent‐child relationships in late childhood and adolescence would differ for boys following different offending trajectories. Methods: Using longitudinal multiinformant data of 503 boys (ages 7–19), we conducted Growth Mixture Modeling to extract offending trajectories. Developmental changes in child reports of parent‐child joint activities and relationship quality were examined using Latent Growth Curves. Results: Five offending trajectories were found: non‐offenders, moderate childhood offenders, adolescent‐limited offenders, serious childhood offenders, and serious persistent offenders. Non‐offenders reported high and stable levels of relationship quality between age 10 and 16. Adolescent‐limited offenders reported a similarly high relationship quality as non‐offenders at ages 7 and 10, but a lower and decreasing relationship quality in adolescence. Compared with non‐offenders, serious persistent offenders reported poorer parent‐child relationship quality at all ages, and a decreasing relationship quality in adolescence. Serious persistent offenders and adolescent‐limited offenders reported similar levels and changes in parent‐child relationship quality in adolescence. Although serious persistent offenders reported fewer joint activities at age 10 and 13 than non‐offenders, a similar linear decrease in joint activities in early to middle adolescence was found for boys in each trajectory. Conclusion: Developmental changes in parent‐child relationship quality differ for different types of offenders. This finding has scientific and practical implications.

This study tested whether Marcia’s original identity statuses of achievement, moratorium, early closure (a new label for foreclosure), and diffusion, can be considered identity status trajectories. That is, we examined whether these statuses are distinct and relatively stable, over-time configurations of commitment strength, levels of in-depth exploration of present commitments, and consideration of alternative commitments. The study examined identity development in a five-wave study of 923 early-to-middle (49.3% female) and 390 middle-to-late adolescents (56.7% female), covering the ages of 12–20. Using Latent class growth analysis (LCGA), the authors found that Marcia’s (1966) statuses are indeed identity status trajectories. Two kinds of moratorium were also found: the classical moratorium and searching moratorium. Support was found for Waterman’s developmental hypothesis of the identity status model: the number of achievers was significantly higher, and the number of diffusions lower, in middle-to-late adolescence than in early-to-middle adolescence. Females were more often in the advanced identity status trajectories, and stable differences were found between the trajectories in psychosocial adjustment. Study findings highlight that identity formation should be conceptualized as an over-time process.

Spending leisure time with deviant peers may have strong influences on adolescents’ delinquency. The current 3‐wave multi‐informant study examined how parental control and parental prohibition of friendships relate to these undesirable peer influences. To this end, annual questionnaires were administered to 497 Dutch youths (283 boys, mean age = 13 years at baseline), their best friends, and both parents. Cross‐lagged panel analyses revealed strong longitudinal links from contacts with deviant peers to adolescent delinquency, but not vice versa. Parent‐reported prohibition of friendships positively predicted contacts with deviant peers and indirectly predicted higher adolescent delinquency. Similar indirect effects were not found for parental control. The results suggest that forbidden friends may become “forbidden fruit,” leading to unintended increases in adolescents’ own delinquency.

Background: In previous studies, maternal expressed emotion (EE) has been found to be a good predictor of the course of adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. However, these studies have been cross‐section as opposed to longitudinal. The goal of this study is to examine longitudinal data of perceived maternal EE and adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms to determine if maternal EE affected the course of adolescent symptoms (a parent effect model), or if the course of adolescent symptoms affected maternal EE (a child effect model), or if maternal EE and adolescent symptoms affected one another bidirectionally. Methods: Dutch adolescents (N = 497; 57% boys; M = 13 years) from the general community and their mothers were prospectively studied annually for three years. At all waves the mothers completed the Level of Expressed Emotion (LEE) questionnaire and the adolescents completed self‐rated measures of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the longitudinal data. Results: The results of the SEM analyses clearly demonstrate that a child effect model best describes the relationship between maternal EE and the course of adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Conclusions: This longitudinal study of the mothers’ EE perceptions suggests that it is the course of the internalizing and externalizing symptoms of adolescents from the general community that affects maternal EE, and not the mothers’ perceived EE influencing the course of the adolescents’ symptoms. Since this study was based on adolescents from the general community, it is suggested that these findings should also be replicated in clinical samples of adolescents.

This study examined different types of longitudinal associations (i.e., directional links and overlapping developmental changes) between children's delinquency and the quality of parent-child relationships from middle childhood to late adolescence. We used 10-wave interview data of 503 boys, their primary caregivers, and their teachers. Our first aim was to unravel the direction of effects between parent-child relationships and children's offending. Cross-lagged panel models revealed bidirectional links over time between poorer quality parent-child relationships and boys' offending across late childhood (age 7-10), early adolescence (age 10-13) and middle adolescence (age 13-16). Second, we examined the associations between mean changes in delinquency, on the one hand, and mean changes in relationship quality, on the other hand. Although parent-child relationships improved during childhood, their quality decreased in early adolescence and remained stable in middle adolescence. Delinquency increased only in middle adolescence. In five out of six models, the slope factors of relationship quality and offending were strongly correlated, indicating that stronger increases in delinquency were associated with stronger decreases in parent-child relationship quality across childhood, early adolescence, and middle adolescence. The discussion focuses on the theoretical implications of these two types of longitudinal associations.

Het reguleren van de grenzen van privacy tussen jongeren en ouders is moeilijk, aangezien jongeren steeds trachten de grenzen van hun privédomein te verruimen. Als jongeren het idee hebben dat hun ouders de privacygrenzen overtreden kan dit leiden tot conflicten, maar een hoger niveau van conflicten zou er ook aan kunnen bijdragen dat jongeren een toenemend gevoel hebben van privacyschending. Deze multi-informant longitudinale studie (N = 309) onderzocht relaties tussen percepties van privacyschending en het niveau van ouder-kindconflict in de adolescentie. Bidirectionele relaties werden aangetoond. Privacyschending voorspelde hogere niveaus van ouder-kindconflict over tijd, en conflicten voorspelden ook gevoelens van privacyschending. De richting van deze effecten varieerde tussen de metingen en de verschillende informanten voor ouderkindconflict (vader, moeder, of kind). Bevindingen worden bediscussieerd vanuit het idee dat er mogelijk een functionele rol is voor conflicten in de ouder-kindrelatie, omdat het aandacht kan vestigen op het overtreden van privacy grenzen, maar dat conflicten niet erg effectief zijn in het reduceren van toekomstige gevoelens van privacyschending.

Deze studie onderzocht de normatieve ontwikkeling van geheimen die adolescenten hebben voor hun ouders. 149 jongens en 160 meisjes (gemiddelde leeftijdT1 = 13.2; SD = 0.5) rapporteerden vier achtereenvolgende jaren over de mate waarin ze geheimen voor hun ouders hadden en over de kwaliteit van de ouder-kindrelatie. Analyses toonden dat jongeren steeds meer geheimhouden naarmate ze ouder worden. Deze toename was sterker voor jongens dan voor meisjes. Verder lieten analyses duidelijke verbanden zien tussen geheimen en een minder goede ouder-kindrelatiekwaliteit een jaar later bij meisjes. De discussie richt zich op verschillende betekenissen van geheimen bij jongens en meisjes en de implicaties van dit onderzoek voor de pedagogische praktijk.

The psychometric characteristics of Carver and White's (1994) BIS/BAS scales were examined in 2 groups of Dutch adolescents (497 early adolescents and 237 middle adolescents, M Age = 13.0 years and 16.4 years, respectively) and their middle-aged mothers (M Age = 45.2 years; N = 734). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed an acceptably fitting 2-factor model for adapted BIS /BAS scales in all 3 groups, reflecting separate BIS and BAS factors. Reliabilities of the 2 scales were satisfactory. The results supported the convergent validity of BIS and BAS scales. BIS was positively correlated with internalizing problem behaviors and neuroticism. BAS was positively correlated with externalizing problem behaviors and extraversion. The discriminant validity of the BIS/BAS scales received mixed support in our data. BIS was negatively correlated with extraversion, and BAS was not correlated with depression. However, BIS was also found to be correlated with externalizing problem behaviors, and BAS was positively correlated with neuroticism. In sum, the scales are suitable for use in research settings, but caution is advocated in application for clinical practice.

Recent onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat jongeren die weinig vertellen aan hun ouders vaker depressief en delinquent zijn. In deze studie stelden we dat een veelgebruikt instrument om te meten hoeveel jongeren vertellen aan hun ouders mogelijk bestaat uit twee componenten: ‘geheimhouden’ en ‘vertellen’. Ook hebben we getoetst of het verband tussen het hebben van geheimen en probleemgedrag mogelijk kan verklaren waarom weinig vertellen aan ouders gerelateerd was aan probleemgedrag in eerder onderzoek. Daartoe werd gebruikgemaakt van een longitudinale dataset met vier metingen bij 309 Nederlandse adolescenten (48% jongens; eerste meting gemiddeld 13.2 jaar oud). Factoranalyses toonden aan dat ‘vertellen’ en ‘geheimen houden’ twee afzonderlijke concepten zijn. Bovendien vertoonden jongeren die veel geheim hielden een jaar later relatief meer depressie en delinquentie, terwijl een dergelijk verband niet werd gevonden voor jongeren die weinig aan hun ouders vertelden. Daarmee geeft deze studie een nieuwe interpretatie aan het werk van Stattin en Kerr en anderen: Het verband tussen weinig vertellen aan ouders en probleemgedrag wordt mogelijk verklaard door een veel sterker verband tussen het hebben van geheimen en probleemgedrag.

Deze 4-jarige studie bij 309 adolescenten onderzocht of veranderingen in ouder-kind communicatie en een toename in kleine criminaliteit gerelateerde processen zijn. Adolescenten rapporteerden jaarlijks over hoeveel zij vertelden aan hun ouders en hoeveel vragen, controle en steun ze ervaarden van hun ouders. Ook rapporteerden ze over hun betrokkenheid bij delinquente activiteiten, zoals graffiti, vandalisme en winkeldiefstal. Latente Groei Modellen toonden dat jongeren, naarmate ze ouder worden, steeds minder vertellen aan hun ouders. Ook controle door ouders nam af in de adolescentie. De mate waarin ouders vragen stellen veranderde niet. Een sterkere afname in hoeveel jongeren vertellen was gerelateerd aan een toename in delinquentie. Bij jongeren die veel steun van ouders ervaarden, was er een verband tussen een minder snelle afname in controle en een toename in delinquentie. Bij jongeren die weinig steun ervaarden was dit verband er niet: Bij deze groep werd juist een verband gevonden tussen hoge beginniveaus van delinquentie en een snellere afname in controle door ouders. De discussie bespreekt theoretische en praktische implicaties van deze bevindingen.

Juvenile offending is a wide-spread problem in Western societies: More than half of the adolescents engage in minor forms of delinquency, and this causes high material and immaterial costs. One of the strongest predictors of such types of delinquency is whether or not parents are aware of their adolescents’ leisure time activities, their friendships, and whereabouts. The current dissertation examined potential sources of parental knowledge: teens’ management of information from their parents, that is, adolescents’ decisions to disclose or to keep information secret from their parents and parents’ active monitoring efforts to keep track of their children daily activities, such as asking questions or controlling access to information. I thereby examined bidirectional and developmental linkages of adolescent information management and parental monitoring with adolescent delinquency, and I examined the broader parent-child relationship context in which such communication takes place. This dissertation revealed that parental knowledge mainly results from voluntary adolescent disclosure and not from parental monitoring efforts. Findings suggest, moreover, that low levels of parental control may not be a risk-factor for, but in stead result from adolescent engagement in delinquency. However, adolescent information management and delinquency were bidirectionally and developmentally linked. Particularly adolescent secrecy from parents was found to predict future involvement in delinquency and a too strong decrease in adolescent disclosure related to a stronger increase in delinquency. The parent-adolescent relational context was found to moderate the effects of parental control on delinquency. Retaining higher levels of parental control may only be effective in reducing delinquency when parent-child relationships are of lower quality. Retaining higher levels of control in highly supportive relationships, may even predict higher levels of delinquency. Finally, findings suggest that adolescents will keep less secrets and disclose more when parents ask non-intrusive questions and give high levels of supportive. Also, shared leisure time activities may relate to higher levels of adolescent voluntary disclosure. As such, this dissertation extended a previous reinterpretation of monitoring by showing that adolescent information management, and secrecy in particular, is a longitudinal predictor of adolescent offending. Longitudinal effects of parental monitoring on delinquency may be negative or positive depending on the relationship context. Furthermore, a high quality relationship context, in which parents and teens share time with each other, which is characterized by high levels of parental support, and in which parents manage to ask non-intrusive questions may increase teens’ willingness to voluntary disclose to their parents, and decrease their levels of secrecy, regarding their daily activities

Recent research has identified adolescent disclosure to parents as a powerful predictor of adolescent adjustment. We propose, however, that the common operationalization of adolescent disclosure incorporates the two separate constructs of disclosure and secrecy, and predicted that the disclosure–adjustment link can largely be explained by the unique contribution of secrecy from parents. A four-wave survey study among 309 adolescents tested these predictions. Factor analyses confirmed that disclosure and secrecy should be distinguished as two separate constructs. Moreover, in cross-lagged path analyses, only secrecy was a longitudinal predictor of adolescent internalizing (i.e., depression) and externalizing (i.e., delinquency) problems, disclosure was not. Secrecy consistently contributed to the longitudinal prediction of delinquency from early to middle adolescence, whereas it contributed to the prediction of depression only in early adolescence. Findings thus attest the importance of distinguishing between disclosure and secrecy and suggest that the disclosure–adjustment link may actually reflect a secrecy-maladjustment link.

The current longitudinal study examined adolescent gender differences in the developmental changes and relational correlates of secrecy from parents. For 4 successive years, starting in the second year of junior high (mean age at Time 1 = 13.2 years, SD = 0.51), 149 male and 160 female Dutch adolescents reported on secrecy from their parents and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Latent growth curve modeling revealed a linear increase in secrecy, which was significantly faster for boys than for girls. Moreover, cross-lagged panel analyses showed clear concurrent and longitudinal linkages between secrecy from parents and poorer parent-child relationship quality in girls. In boys, much less strong linkages were found between poorer relationships and secrecy from parents.

This study examined identity development in a 5-wave study of 923 early-to-middle and 390 middle-to-late adolescents thereby covering the ages of 12–20. Systematic evidence for identity progression was found: The number of diffusions, moratoriums, and searching moratoriums (a newly obtained status) decreased, whereas the representation of the high-commitment statuses (2 variants of a [fore]closed identity: “early closure” and “closure,” and achievement) increased. We also found support for the individual difference perspective: 63% of the adolescents remained in the same identity status across the 5 waves. Identity progression was characterized by 7 transitions: diffusion → moratorium, diffusion → early closure, moratorium → closure, moratorium → achievement, searching moratorium → closure, searching moratorium → achievement, and early closure → achievement.

The current longitudinal study examined adolescent gender differences in the developmental changes and relational correlates of secrecy from parents. For 4 successive years, starting in the second year of junior high (mean age at Time 1 = 13.2 years, SD = 0.51), 149 male and 160 female Dutch adolescents reported on secrecy from their parents and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Latent growth curve modeling revealed a linear increase in secrecy, which was significantly faster for boys than for girls. Moreover, cross-lagged panel analyses showed clear concurrent and longitudinal linkages between secrecy from parents and poorer parent-child relationship quality in girls. In boys, much less strong linkages were found between poorer relationships and secrecy from parents. © 2010 American Psychological Association.

This two‐wave multi‐informant study examined the bidirectional associations of parental control and solicitation with adolescent disclosure and delinquency. Participants were 289 adolescents (150 females and 139 males, modal age 14) and both parents. Parental solicitation and control did not predict adolescent delinquency, but adolescents' self‐reported disclosure was a negative predictor of delinquency. In addition, delinquency predicted less disclosure. Furthermore, maternal solicitation predicted disclosure and adolescent disclosure predicted parental solicitation. All relations held after controlling for leisure time spent with parents and with peers. These longitudinal findings show an overlap in the development of parental solicitation and the development of adolescent disclosure, but also show that only adolescent disclosure is negatively related to delinquency over time.

Deze studie onderzocht de normatieve ontwikkeling van geheimen die adolescenten hebben voor hun ouders. 149 jongens en 160 meisjes (gemiddelde leeftijdT1 = 13.2; SD = 0.5) rapporteerden vier achtereenvolgende jaren over de mate waarin ze geheimen voor hun ouders hadden en over de kwaliteit van de ouder-kindrelatie. Analyses toonden dat jongeren steeds meer geheimhouden naarmate ze ouder worden. Deze toename was sterker voor jongens dan voor meisjes. Verder lieten analyses duidelijke verbanden zien tussen geheimen en een minder goede ouder-kindrelatiekwaliteit een jaar later bij meisjes. De discussie richt zich op verschillende betekenissen van geheimen bij jongens en meisjes en de implicaties van dit onderzoek voor de pedagogische praktijk.

This 4-wave study among 309 Dutch adolescents and their parents examined changes in adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and parental control and their links with the development of delinquent activities. Annually, adolescents and both parents reported on adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and parental control, and adolescents reported on delinquent activities and parental support. Latent growth curve analyses revealed a linear decline in parental control between ages 13 and 16. Adolescent disclosure decreased gradually in adolescent reports and showed an L-shaped pattern in father reports and a V-shaped pattern in mother reports. A stronger increase in delinquent activities was related to a stronger decrease in disclosure in mother and adolescent reports and to lower levels of disclosure in father reports. The linkages between levels of disclosure and delinquent activities were stronger in families with high parental support than in families with lower support. Furthermore, in lower parental support families, a stronger decrease in paternal control was related to a stronger increase in delinquent activities. In high parental support families, however, a stronger decrease in adolescent-reported parental control was related to a less strong increase in delinquent activities.

Some Teens Tell No Tales. Parent-Child Communication and Delinquency by Adolescents In this two-wave study amongst 289 adolescents and both parents (150 females and 139 males, modal age 14), we examined the linkages of parent-adolescent communication with delinquent activities. Boys' and girls' self-reported disclosure was a negative predictor of delinquency over time, and delinquency predicted less disclosure a year later. However, parental solicitation and control did not predict adolescent delinquency.Thus, these cross-sectional and longitudinal findings show that adolescent disclosure (not parental monitoring) is negatively linked to delinquency.

This study tested whether Marcia’s original identity statuses of achievement, moratorium, early closure (a new label for foreclosure), and diffusion, can be considered identity status trajectories. That is, we examined whether these statuses are distinct and relatively stable, over-time configurations of commitment strength, levels of in-depth exploration of present commitments, and consideration of alternative commitments. The study examined identity development in a five-wave study of 923 early-to-middle (49.3% female) and 390 middle-to-late adolescents (56.7% female), covering the ages of 12–20. Using Latent class growth analysis (LCGA), the authors found that Marcia’s (1966) statuses are indeed identity status trajectories. Two kinds of moratorium were also found: the classical moratorium and searching moratorium. Support was found for Waterman’s developmental hypothesis of the identity status model: the number of achievers was significantly higher, and the number of diffusions lower, in middle-to-late adolescence than in early-to-middle adolescence. Females were more often in the advanced identity status trajectories, and stable differences were found between the trajectories in psychosocial adjustment. Study findings highlight that identity formation should be conceptualized as an over-time process.